Leslie Massey
The annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 and 1939, respectively, marked a crucial turning point in the lead-up to World War II. Austria, with its large German-majority population, was easier to annex than Czechoslovakia due to several factors. Firstly, the idea of a Pan-German state uniting all German people in Europe under one new state resonated in Austria, where Nazism was gaining popularity. Secondly, many Austrians felt slighted by the creation of new states on their old territory after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, leading them to embrace their German identity. Thirdly, the Austrian Nazi Party carried out terrorist attacks and propaganda campaigns to intimidate and influence the Austrian population, creating a favourable environment for annexation. Finally, the British policy of appeasement towards Hitler's aggressive expansionism during this period further enabled the annexation of Austria without significant resistance from other European powers.
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What You'll Learn
Austria had a large German population, Czechoslovakia didn't
Austria and Czechoslovakia were both formed after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The Empire was a multinational entity comprising Germans, Hungarians, and nine other major nationalities. Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, Carinthia, Vorarlberg, and most of Styria and Tyrol had a predominantly German population. These territories were the core "Austrian" provinces and had a population of 6.5 million. In contrast, Czechoslovakia, along with other new states, quickly took territories that were outside of the current Republic of Austria, which often had significant non-German minorities and occasionally non-German majorities.
The Nazi Party of Germany was strongly rooted in Pan-German Nationalism, which aimed to bring all German people in Europe into one state. Austria had a large German majority, while Czechoslovakia did not. Many Austrians felt slighted by the creation of so many new states on their old territories and fell back on their German identity. Hitler and the growing Nazi Party shared the resentment many Germans felt towards the loss of German territory with the new Europe that emerged at the end of World War I and the Versailles Treaty of 1919. The idea of a greater Germany based on uniting most of the German people of Europe was a popular plank in the Nazi Platform, and this idea also resonated in Austria, where Nazism was gaining popularity.
Hitler's popularity in Germany increased support for the Austrian Nazi Party in 1931–1932. Austrian Nazis had even murdered the Chancellor in 1934 during an attempted coup. The Austrian Nazi Party failed to win any seats in the November 1930 general election, but its popularity grew in Austria after Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933. The idea of Austria joining Germany also gained popularity, partly due to a Nazi propaganda campaign with slogans such as "Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer" ("One People, One Empire, One Leader"). According to John Gunther, by the end of 1933, Austrian public opinion about German annexation was at least 60% against. However, the remaining Austrian Nazis continued terrorist attacks against Austrian governmental institutions, causing a death toll of over 800 between 1934 and 1938.
In March 1938, Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria before a plebiscite on unification with Germany could be held. In Czechoslovakia, ethnic Germans constituted about 23% of the population and were concentrated in the Sudetenland, which wrapped around the western end of the country. Nazi Germany employed agents and propaganda to heighten the demands of the Sudeten Germans, resulting in the Munich Crisis and the annexation of the Sudetenland in October 1938. In March 1939, Hitler then occupied the Czech lands, including Prague, and recognized the independence of Slovakia, effectively dismantling Czechoslovakia.
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Austria had a history of supporting Nazism
Austria had a significant history of supporting Nazism, which made it easier for Hitler to annex the country compared to Czechoslovakia. Austrian Nazism, or Austrian National Socialism, was a pan-German movement that took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. The movement solidified on November 15, 1903, with the establishment of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Austria, which later became the German National Socialist Workers' Party (DNSAP). The DNSAP gained prominence in the 1930s, and by 1932, Austria was reportedly 80% pro-Anschluss, indicating a desire to unite with Germany.
Austrian support for Nazism and the idea of uniting with Germany were influenced by several factors. Firstly, Austria had a large German majority, and many Austrians identified as Germans, especially after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. This led to a sense of shared resentment with Germans over the loss of German territory following World War I and the Versailles Treaty of 1919. The notion of a Greater Germany, uniting all German people in Europe, resonated strongly in Austria. Additionally, Nazi propaganda campaigns effectively promoted the idea of a unified German Reich, using slogans like "Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer" ("One People, One Empire, One Leader").
The Austrian Nazi Party, despite initial electoral failures, gained popularity after Hitler rose to power in Germany. Prominent Austrians, such as Cardinal Theodor Innitzer and Social Democrat Karl Renner, endorsed the Anschluss. The day before the referendum, churches in Austria tolled their bells in support of Hitler, and official records showed an overwhelming majority voting in favour of the annexation. However, it is important to note that the referendum excluded Austrian Jews, Mischlinge, and those arrested for "racial" or political reasons, further marginalizing these groups.
The Austrian government, under Kurt Schuschnigg, attempted to resist the absorption into Nazi Germany, but ultimately failed. Austrian Nazis even resorted to terrorist attacks against the government, causing a significant death toll between 1934 and 1938. The annexation of Austria in 1938, known as the Anschluss, marked the end of Austria as an independent state, and the country became a part of Nazi Germany. This history of Austrian support for Nazism and the desire for unification with Germany made Austria an easier target for annexation compared to Czechoslovakia, which had a smaller ethnic German population and lacked the same level of pro-Nazi sentiment.
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Czechoslovakia had defences in place
Secondly, Czechoslovakia took steps to strengthen its defences and deter potential aggression from Nazi Germany. Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, was strategically located in the Sudetenland mountains, providing a natural defensive advantage. The Czechs recognised the threat posed by the growing strength of Nazi Germany and took proactive measures to safeguard their interests. They had defences in place, and they were not about to let Germany walk all over them.
Thirdly, Czechoslovakia attempted to leverage international diplomacy to secure their sovereignty. The Munich Agreement in September 1938, which ceded the Sudetenland to Germany, was a result of international negotiations and crisis management. While the agreement ultimately failed to prevent the annexation of the Sudetenland, it demonstrated Czechoslovakia's attempts to involve the international community in resolving the crisis peacefully. They were trying to get the international community on their side, but it didn't work.
Finally, Czechoslovakia's response to the annexation of the Sudetenland and the subsequent recognition of Slovak independence in March 1939 cannot be overlooked. While these events significantly weakened Czechoslovakia, they did not result in complete submission. The remaining nation became a protectorate, indicating that some level of resistance or alternative power structure persisted. Czechoslovakia did not go down without a fight, and the process of annexation was more protracted than in Austria.
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Britain and France were preoccupied with domestic issues
The annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938 and 1939 marked a crucial turning point in the lead-up to World War II. Britain, under the leadership of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, adopted a policy of appeasement towards Hitler's expansionism. This decision has been the subject of much historical debate and criticism. Chamberlain and Halifax were not military men and had not fought in World War I. They disagreed with the analysis that Hitler was intent upon European hegemony and thought his intentions were limited. Britain and France were preoccupied with domestic issues and social welfare reforms, and the policy of appeasement was shaped by the complex diplomatic relationships between Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union.
Britain and France had been the principal architects of the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed harsh penalties on Germany after World War I. Many British politicians, including Chamberlain, believed that the treaty had been too punitive and that Germany had legitimate grievances that needed to be addressed. At the same time, Britain and France were wary of the growing power of the Soviet Union and the spread of communism. The Great Depression had a severe impact on the British economy, with unemployment reaching 22% in 1932, and the economic crisis led to a rise in pacifism and anti-war sentiment among the British public, who were still traumatized by the losses of World War I.
The Spanish Civil War, which was ongoing in 1937, also created huge angst in Britain and France. By the time of the Anschluss with Austria in March 1938, there was little Britain and France could do as the Austrians seemed to welcome the Germans. The British gave Hitler the green light, and the outbreak of World War II has been blamed on this policy of 'appeasement'. The international community's response to the annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia was mixed. The United States, which had adopted a policy of isolationism in the 1930s, remained largely aloof from European affairs, while the Soviet Union, which had been excluded from the Munich Agreement, pursued its policy of non-aggression with Germany.
In summary, Britain and France were preoccupied with domestic issues, including economic recovery and social stability, and were wary of the growing power of the Soviet Union. They also believed that the Treaty of Versailles had been too harsh on Germany and that German grievances needed to be addressed. These factors, along with a rise in pacifism and anti-war sentiment among the British public, contributed to the policy of appeasement towards Hitler's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia.
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Britain and France had a lenient view of Hitler's intentions
Austria was easier to annex than Czechoslovakia due to several factors, including its large German majority population, the popularity of Nazism in the country, and the successful use of propaganda and intimidation by the Nazi Party. The annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was the first act of territorial expansion committed by Nazi Germany and violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. Despite this violation, the international community, including Britain and France, did not intervene or punish Nazi Germany, demonstrating a lenient view of Hitler's intentions.
Britain's policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany in the 1930s, most closely associated with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, allowed Hitler to expand German territory without consequences. This policy was instituted to avoid war and was considered a pragmatic approach at the time, as Europe was still recovering from the devastation of World War I. Britain was overstretched in policing its empire and lacked significant support from its Commonwealth allies. Additionally, France, Britain's main ally, was seriously weakened. Thus, Britain and France were reluctant to confront Hitler directly and instead chose negotiation and appeasement.
The British government under Prime Ministers Ramsay MacDonald and Stanley Baldwin chose not to sanction or punish Nazi Germany for violating international agreements. Instead, they signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935, allowing Germany to maintain a larger naval force than permitted under the Treaty of Versailles. This agreement was intended to prevent a naval arms race between Britain and Germany. However, Hitler continued his expansionist agenda, remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936 and annexing Austria in March 1938.
The annexation of Austria was a blatant violation of post-World War I peace treaties, yet the international community accepted it without taking significant action. This acceptance allowed Hitler to continue his expansionist policies unchecked, as demonstrated by the subsequent annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia through the Munich Agreement in September 1938. Winston Churchill, one of the few to oppose appeasement, warned about the dangers of Hitler's intentions, but his views were often seen as hawkish and paranoid by his fellow Conservatives.
In conclusion, Britain and France's lenient view of Hitler's intentions during the annexation of Austria was influenced by their desire to avoid war, the fragile state of Europe after World War I, and the weakness of their own positions. Their policy of appeasement ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II, and the consequences of this leniency contributed to the shaping of post-war international relations.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria had a large German majority, Czechoslovakia didn't. The idea of a Pan-German state also resonated in Austria, where Nazism was proving popular.
In Czechoslovakia, ethnic Germans constituted about 23% of the population.
The Austrian Nazi Party's failure to win any seats in the November 1930 general election did not stop its growing popularity in Austria after Hitler came to power in Germany.
The Austrian government's attempts to suppress Nazi supporters, including interning them in camps, ultimately failed to prevent the annexation.
The international community's response was mixed. Britain and France, still traumatized by World War I, adopted a policy of appeasement towards Hitler's aggressive expansionism. The United States remained largely aloof, while the Soviet Union pursued its own non-aggression pact with Germany.
