Ruqayyah Snyder
Adolf Hitler's annexation of Austria and Czechoslovakia was the Nazi regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion. By annexing Austria, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. The international community's failure to intervene or punish these violations emboldened Hitler to continue his expansionary policies unchecked. In Czechoslovakia, Hitler exploited the demands of the Sudeten German minority for greater autonomy, pressuring France and Great Britain to force Czechoslovakia to concede to his demands. The Munich Agreement of 1938, intended to prevent war, effectively handed Czechoslovakia to Germany, paving the way for Hitler's occupation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Nazi regime's first act of territorial aggression and expansion | Annexation of Austria |
| Violation of international treaties | Treaty of Versailles, Treaty of Saint-Germain, post-World War I European order |
| Lack of international response | No intervention or punishment by other European powers |
| International appeasement of Hitler | Annexation of Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia with no resistance |
| Economic motivations | Czechoslovakia had Europe's 7th largest economy and modern, developed, and industrialized economy in Eastern Europe |
| Military advantages | Czechoslovakia had a modern army and was a major manufacturer of weapons and ammunition |
| Political manipulation | Hitler used demands of Sudeten German minority to pressure Czechoslovakia's allies, France and Great Britain |
| Weak Czechoslovak leadership | Czechoslovak President Emil Hácha was considered weak and unable to stand up to Hitler's threats |
| Ineffective international agreements | Munich Agreement and Munich Pact failed to prevent German occupation of Czechoslovakia |
| Anti-communist and anti-Semitic sentiments | Dissolving the Communist Party and removing Jewish teachers in schools |
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What You'll Learn
Hitler's demands and threats of war
Hitler's initial territorial demands were driven by his desire to redraw the map of post-World War I Europe and unite German-speaking populations under his rule. This was achieved through a combination of diplomatic negotiations and threats of military action. The annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was a significant breach of the post-World War I international order as it violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. The international community's lack of intervention and punishment for this violation set a precedent for appeasement, allowing Hitler to continue his expansionist policies.
Hitler's attention then turned to Czechoslovakia, which had a significant German-speaking population in the Sudetenland region. In 1938, Hitler demanded the annexation of the Sudetenland, claiming that the oppression of Germans in Czechoslovakia must cease and invoking their right to self-determination. This demand was met with appeasement from Britain, France, and Czechoslovakia, who were desperate to avoid war at all costs. The Munich Agreement of 1938 resulted in Czechoslovakia ceding the Sudetenland to Germany without resistance, giving Hitler control of extensive border fortifications.
Hitler's expansionist ambitions did not stop with the Sudetenland. In March 1939, he violated the Munich Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia. He coerced the Czechoslovak president, Emil Hácha, into signing away his country's independence, and proclaimed the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. This occupation provided Germany with significant military resources, including weaponry and industrial capabilities.
In summary, Hitler's demands and threats of war were driven by his desire for territorial expansion and the unification of German-speaking populations. Through a combination of diplomatic negotiations, threats of military action, and the exploitation of appeasement policies, he was able to achieve significant gains in Austria and Czechoslovakia, setting the stage for the broader conflict that followed.
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The Munich Pact
In the spring of 1938, Hitler began openly supporting the demands of German-speakers in the Sudeten region for closer ties with Germany. This was part of his plan to create a "greater Germany," with the annexation of Austria being the first step. The Sudetenland held significant strategic importance for Czechoslovakia, as its mountainous borderland provided a natural barrier against potential German attacks. However, under pressure from Germany, Poland, and Hungary, as well as diplomatic pressure from Britain and France, Czechoslovakia agreed to surrender the Sudetenland.
Hitler's annexation of the Sudetenland was a significant moment in Nazi Germany's expansionist agenda. It demonstrated the international community's initial appeasement policy towards Hitler, as they did not intervene or punish Germany for violating international treaties. This emboldened Hitler to continue his expansionist policies, and by March 1939, he had occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia, causing the country to cease to exist.
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Czechoslovakian government's failed attempts to appease Hitler
The Czechoslovakian government's failed attempts to appease Hitler included the dissolution of the Communist Party and the suspension of all Jewish teachers in ethnic-German majority schools. Despite these concessions, rumours continued to circulate about the incorporation of Czechoslovakia into the Reich. Hitler made it clear in October 1938 that he intended to force the central Czechoslovakian government to give Slovakia its independence, which would make the remaining Czech state "even more completely at [Hitler's] mercy".
In March 1938, Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein offered the Sudeten German Party (SdP) as the agent for Hitler's campaign. Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin and was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government, such as autonomy for the Sudetenland and the freedom to profess National Socialist ideology. The SdP held demonstrations that provoked the police in Ostrava on 7 September, and the Sudeten Germans broke off negotiations on 13 September, leading to violence and disruption.
On 30 May, Hitler signed a secret directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October. The British government demanded that Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš request a mediator, and he reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman and instructed him to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans. On 2 September, Beneš submitted the Fourth Plan, which granted nearly all of the demands of the Karlsbader Programm. However, the SdP continued to obstruct conciliation. On 15 September, Henlein issued a proclamation demanding the takeover of the Sudetenland by Germany.
On 29 September, Chamberlain got an international agreement that Hitler should have the Sudetenland in exchange for Germany making no further demands for land in Europe. On 1 October, German troops occupied the Sudetenland, and Hitler had gotten what he wanted without firing a shot. However, Hitler's annexation of the rest of Czechoslovakia showed that appeasement was unsuccessful in stopping his expansionary policies.
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Hitler's support from Austrians
Hitler's rise to power in Germany was preceded by his birth and upbringing in Austria. He was born in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (present-day Austria) and moved to Germany in 1913. As a young boy, Hitler, like many Austrian Germans, developed German nationalist ideas and expressed loyalty only to Germany. He despised the declining Habsburg monarchy and its rule over an ethnically diverse empire. He even used the greeting "Heil" and sang the "Deutschlandlied" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.
Hitler's Austrian citizenship was terminated in 1925, and he did not acquire German citizenship until seven years later. This meant that he was legally stateless during this period. Despite this, Hitler's connection to Austria and his support from Austrians played a significant role in his ability to take over the country.
In the 1920s, many Austrians felt that their country could not survive economically without the lands previously held by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Some hoped to restore a form of the empire, while others desired a union with Germany. These sentiments created a favourable environment for Hitler's expansionist ideology.
Hitler's annexation of Austria, known as the "Anschluss," was met with enthusiasm by a large section of the Austrian population. German troops crossing the border were welcomed with cheers and flowers, and Austrians warmly received Hitler as he travelled through the country. The "Anschluss" transformed Austria overnight, and many Austrians participated eagerly in the Nazification of Austrian life. They supported the persecution of the country's Jewish population and the implementation of Hitler's aggressive foreign policy.
Austrian Nazis played a crucial role in the takeover, occupying public buildings and offices without resistance. The Austrian Nazi Chancellor, Seyss-Inquart, signed the "Reunification of Austria with Germany" law, solidifying the union. Additionally, prominent Austrians, such as Cardinal Theodor Innitzer and the Social Democrat Karl Renner, promoted the approval of the "Anschluss."
The support for Hitler and the Nazi regime in Austria was not unanimous, however. Some Austrians tried to resist the Nazi annexation, including Austrian Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg, who called for a plebiscite (referendum) to assert Austrian independence. Despite these efforts, the international community's failure to intervene and the acceptance of the "Anschluss" allowed Hitler to consolidate power in Austria and continue his expansionist agenda unchecked.
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The British and French governments' failure to act
In the case of Austria, the annexation, known as the Anschluss, was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. However, the international community, including Britain and France, did not intervene or punish Germany for these treaty breaches. This inaction sent a message of weakness and encouraged Hitler to pursue further expansionist policies.
Similarly, when Hitler set his sights on Czechoslovakia, the British and French governments once again failed to take decisive action. They advised the Czechoslovak government to concede to Hitler's demands, believing that this would prevent a wider conflict. In September 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, French Premier Edouard Daladier, Hitler, and Benito Mussolini. This agreement ceded the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany, despite the fact that it was home to 3 million ethnic Germans and a significant portion of the country's natural resources.
The British and French believed that the Munich Agreement would bring "peace in our time," but it only emboldened Hitler. He used the internal tensions between the Slovaks and Czechs to further destabilize the country and ultimately invade and occupy the whole of Czechoslovakia in March 1939. The failure of the British and French governments to act decisively and their willingness to appease Hitler had severe consequences, as it allowed him to consolidate power and continue his aggressive expansionist agenda unchecked.
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Frequently asked questions
Hitler was able to take over Austria because of the country's economic dependence on Germany and the presence of millions of German-speaking people in Austria. The Nazis' annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was also facilitated by the international community's failure to intervene or punish Germany for violating the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which expressly forbade the unification of the two countries.
The annexation of Austria transformed the country almost overnight, leading to the rapid Nazification of Austrian society, with many Austrians participating enthusiastically. The Anschluss also marked a significant breach of the post-World War I international order and emboldened Hitler to continue his expansionist policies.
Hitler sought to occupy Czechoslovakia for several reasons. Firstly, he aimed to unite Germans living in the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia with the German nation. Additionally, Czechoslovakia had significant economic and military resources, including a modern army, advanced manufacturing capabilities, and abundant natural resources, making it an attractive target for German expansion.
Hitler used a combination of diplomatic maneuvers and military threats to take control of Czechoslovakia. He exploited the grievances of the Sudeten German minority in Czechoslovakia and pressured Czechoslovakia's allies, France and Great Britain, to force concessions from the Prague government. The Munich Agreement of 1938 effectively handed control of the Sudetenland to Germany, and in March 1939, Hitler threatened a bombing raid on Prague unless Czech President Emil Hacha allowed free passage for German troops.
The Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia resulted in the persecution and murder of a significant portion of the country's Jewish population. Between 294,000 and 320,000 citizens, mostly Jews, were killed during the occupation. Additionally, the country's industrial and economic resources were exploited to support the German war effort, and many Czechs were subjected to slave labor in Germany.
