Germania's Offer: What Did Italy Want?

In 1882, Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, a defensive military pact that would see the three countries support each other in the event of an attack by another great power. However, Italy's colonial ambitions in North Africa and the Balkans brought it into conflict with Austria-Hungary, and public opinion in Italy remained unenthusiastic about an alliance with its former enemy. When World War I broke out in 1914, Italy initially declared neutrality, seeing Austria-Hungary as the aggressor. Italy eventually entered the war in 1915 on the side of the Triple Entente, comprising France, Britain and Russia, as they promised Italy substantial territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary.

Italy's demands for Austrian territory were supported by Berlin

In the early 20th century, Italy revived an irredentist demand from its younger days as a nation-state, namely, the secession of the Monarchy's Italian-speaking areas. This primarily meant the Italian areas of the southern Tyrol (the Trentino) and certain border areas in Friuli (Gradisca). These demands were supported in Berlin but vehemently rejected by Franz Joseph and the proponents of Austro-Hungarian expansionism. The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was intent on preserving its territorial integrity, and the Emperor refused to surrender any territories on its eastern borders.

Germany exerted increasing pressure on Austria to give in to the Italian demands, hoping that concessions would prevent Italy from entering the war. This pressure was also recognised by the Austrian foreign minister Count Berchtold, who resigned on 11 January 1915 due to Franz Joseph's absolute refusal to compromise. Ultimately, it was the Emperor's obstinacy that caused Italy to enter the war as an enemy of the Danube Monarchy.

When Italy joined sides with the Triple Entente, it was with the understanding that the Allies would seek to provide Italy with substantial territorial gains at the cost of Austria-Hungary. In the planned new ordering of post-war Europe, Italy was promised a frontier as far north as the Brenner Pass. Not only the Italian-speaking Trentino was to come under Italian sovereignty, but also the German-speaking areas of southern Tyrol as far as the principal ridge of the Alps. Additionally, there were hopes of Italy gaining the Austrian Littoral on the northern Adriatic and even parts of Dalmatia. Although these territories had largely non-Italian populations, they had long been part of the maximum demands made by radical Italian nationalists.

Italy's colonial ambitions in North Africa

The genesis of the Italian colonial empire in Africa was the purchase of Assab Bay on the Red Sea in 1869 by an Italian navigation company, which was later taken over by the Italian government in 1882, becoming modern Italy's first overseas territory. In February 1885, Italy secretly agreed with Britain to annex the port of Massawa in Eritrea on the Red Sea from the Egyptian Empire. This denied the Ethiopian Empire access to the sea, leading to conflict with Italy. Italy also occupied territory on the south side of the Horn of Africa, forming what would become Italian Somaliland.

In 1898, Italy demanded the cession of Sanmen Bay in China as a coaling station, but the Chinese government rejected this ultimatum as Italy lacked sufficient naval power in Asian waters. This prompted Italy to take part in the Boxer Rebellion, resulting in the acquisition of a concession in Tianjin in 1901, the only example of Italian colonialism in Asia.

In the early 20th century, a wave of nationalism swept Italy, leading to the founding of the Italian Nationalist Association, which pressed for the expansion of Italy's empire. Newspapers fuelled talk of revenge for past humiliations in Ethiopia and nostalgia for the Roman era, suggesting that Libya, an ex-Roman colony, should be "taken back." In October 1911, Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire, of which Libya was a part, gaining control of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands after the Italo-Turkish War.

During World War I, Italy occupied southern Albania and recruited Albanian irregulars to serve alongside them. In June 1917, Italy proclaimed central and southern Albania as a protectorate, while northern Albania was allocated to Serbia and Montenegro.

In the interwar period, Italian colonial policy in North Africa continued under Benito Mussolini's Fascist government, which encouraged systematic "demographic colonization." By 1939, there were 120,000-150,000 Italian settlers in Libya and 165,000 in Italian East Africa. In 1936, Italy merged its new conquest of Ethiopia with its older colonies in Eritrea and Somaliland to create Italian East Africa. In 1939, Italy invaded and captured Albania, incorporating it into the Fascist state.

During World War II, Italy occupied British Somaliland, western Egypt, and parts of southeastern France and Greece. However, it lost these conquests and its African colonies to the invading Allied forces by 1943. In 1947, Italy officially relinquished its claims on its former colonies.

Italy's obligation to Austria-Hungary

Italy's obligations to Austria-Hungary were complicated by its membership in the Triple Alliance, which also included Germany. The Triple Alliance was a defensive military alliance formed in 1882, in which each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. In the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia, Italy promised to remain neutral.

In 1887, Italy gained an empty promise of German support for its colonial ambitions in North Africa in return for continued friendship. Austria-Hungary was pressured by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to accept the principles of consultation and mutual agreement with Italy on any territorial changes initiated in the Balkans or on the coasts and islands of the Adriatic and Aegean seas. Despite the treaty, Italy and Austria-Hungary did not overcome their basic conflict of interest in that region.

In 1914, Italy initially declared its neutrality on the grounds that the Triple Alliance treaty did not oblige it to give military assistance to Austria-Hungary and Germany. While Rome was prepared to accept Austria-Hungary's plans to expand in the Balkans at Serbia's expense, it wished for this benevolence to be reciprocated and revived an irredentist demand for the secession of the Monarchy's Italian-speaking areas. This primarily meant the Italian areas of the southern Tyrol (Trentino) and certain border areas in Friuli (Gradisca).

Germany exerted increasing pressure on Austria-Hungary to give in to Italian demands, hoping that concessions would prevent Italy from entering the war. However, Emperor Franz Joseph and the proponents of Austro-Hungarian expansionism vehemently rejected these demands, as the Monarchy was intent on preserving its territorial integrity. As the Emperor put it:

> I would rather lose everything and go down with honour than be drawn into this disgusting round of robbers’ bargaining.

Ultimately, it was the Emperor's obstinacy that caused Italy to enter the war as an enemy of the Danube Monarchy.

Italy's national dream: control over territory on its border with Austria-Hungary

Italy's national dream was to control territory on its border with Austria-Hungary. This was part of a broader desire to unify Italy and take over "unredeemed lands".

In 1882, Italy formed the Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, a defensive military pact in which each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great power. However, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about the country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification. Many Italians saw the Italian-populated districts in the Trentino and Istria as occupied territories.

In the years leading up to World War I, Italy and Austria-Hungary had a conflict of interest in the Balkans region, despite being members of the same alliance. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, straining relations with Serbia and contributing to rising tensions in the Balkans. When Austria-Hungary's heir, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in 1914 by a Bosnian-Serb terrorist, Austria-Hungary was determined to use the murder to crush the Serbian threat once and for all. With German encouragement, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia and subsequently declared war.

Italy initially declared its neutrality, considering Austria-Hungary the aggressor. However, Italy also wanted to prevent itself from becoming too removed from European "power politics". Negotiations with the Triple Alliance continued throughout the winter of 1915, with Austria-Hungary and Germany aware that they could put forward counteroffers that would be more interesting to Italy. Indeed, Germany exerted increasing pressure on Austria-Hungary to give in to Italian demands, hoping that concessions would prevent Italy from entering the war.

Italy's demands included the secession of the Monarchy's Italian-speaking areas, primarily the Italian areas of the southern Tyrol (Trentino) and certain border areas in Friuli (Gradisca). While these demands were supported in Berlin, they were vehemently rejected by Franz Joseph and the proponents of Austro-Hungarian expansionism, who were intent on preserving their empire's territorial integrity.

Eventually, Italy joined the war on the side of the Triple Entente, with the understanding that the Allies would seek to provide Italy with substantial territorial gains at the expense of Austria-Hungary. Italy was promised a frontier as far north as the Brenner Pass, including sovereignty over not only the Italian-speaking Trentino but also the German-speaking areas of southern Tyrol. Additionally, there were hopes of Italy gaining the Austrian Littoral on the northern Adriatic and even parts of Dalmatia. Thus, Italy's entry into the war was driven by its national dream of controlling territory on its border with Austria-Hungary and expanding its influence in the Balkans.

Italy's alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary

Italy's primary motivation for joining the alliance was to secure protection against France, with whom it had rival colonial ambitions in North Africa. The alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary guaranteed Italy support in the event of French aggression. In return, Italy promised to assist Germany if it was attacked by France and to remain neutral in the event of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia.

Despite the alliance, Italian public opinion remained unenthusiastic about the country's alignment with Austria-Hungary, a past enemy of Italian unification. In the years leading up to World War I, there were predictions that Italy would attack Austria-Hungary in the event of a large-scale conflict. Mutual suspicions between the two countries led to a reinforcement of their shared border and speculation in the press about a potential war.

When World War I broke out in 1914, Italy initially declared its neutrality, arguing that the Triple Alliance treaty did not oblige it to provide military assistance to Austria-Hungary and Germany. Italy entered negotiations with both the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, ultimately siding with the latter and declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915.

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