The Unseen Afghanistan: A Country Beyond The Headlines

The Taliban has ruled Afghanistan since 2021, but no countries have extended diplomatic recognition to the new regime. The Taliban has long been considered a pariah by much of the world due to its legacy of brutality, support for terrorism, human rights abuses, and involvement in drug trafficking. During their previous time in power from 1996 to 2001, only three countries—Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates—formally recognized the Taliban's control over Afghanistan. This time around, the Taliban is campaigning for international recognition, but countries are hesitant to formally acknowledge the group as Afghanistan's legitimate governing power. The United States, for example, has a policy of recognizing the de facto rulers of any given country, but it has often refused to recognize leaders it finds objectionable, and it is unlikely to formally recognize the Taliban. Other countries, such as Canada, have also explicitly refused to recognize the Taliban. The international community's recognition of Afghanistan remains a complex and highly debated issue.

The US recognised Afghanistan in 1921 and established diplomatic relations in 1935

The recognition of Afghanistan by the US in 1921 was a significant moment in the country's history, paving the way for the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two nations in 1935. At the time, Afghanistan was under the rule of King Amanullah Khan, and the US was led by President Warren G. Harding. This early recognition set the stage for a complex and evolving relationship between Afghanistan and the US over the ensuing decades.

The first contact between Afghanistan and the US occurred much earlier, in the 1830s, when the first recorded American, Josiah Harlan, an adventurer and political activist, travelled to the region with the ambition of becoming the King of Afghanistan. However, it was not until the 20th century that formal diplomatic ties were established. In January 1921, after the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed between Afghanistan and British India, an Afghan mission visited the US with the aim of establishing diplomatic relations. This initiative bore fruit when, on July 26, 1921, President Harding received a mission from the Afghan government at the White House, marking the official recognition of Afghanistan by the US.

It would be another 14 years before full diplomatic relations were established. On May 4, 1935, William H. Hornibrook, the US Envoy (Minister Plenipotentiary) to Afghanistan, presented his credentials to the Afghan government, formalising diplomatic ties between the two countries. Hornibrook, who resided in Tehran, served as the non-resident US representative to Afghanistan from 1935 to 1936. This development reflected the US policy of assisting developing nations in raising their standard of living, which played a crucial role in fostering relations with Afghanistan during this period.

The US-Afghan relationship underwent a significant shift following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The US supported the Afghan resistance fighters and worked diplomatically to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. However, when the Taliban rose to power in the post-Soviet power vacuum and provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, the US responded with a military campaign targeting terrorist facilities and Taliban assets. This intervention culminated in the fall of Kabul in 2001 and marked a new phase in the complex dynamics between the US and Afghanistan.

In summary, the US recognition of Afghanistan in 1921 and the subsequent establishment of diplomatic relations in 1935 laid the foundation for a complex and dynamic relationship between the two countries. The early recognition by the US contributed to Afghanistan's international standing, while the diplomatic ties established in the following years facilitated interactions and influenced the course of history for both nations, particularly amid the Cold War and the rise of the Taliban.

The Taliban has ruled Afghanistan since 2021, but no countries have extended diplomatic recognition

Since the Taliban took control of Afghanistan in 2021, no country has extended diplomatic recognition to the new regime. This is despite the Taliban's campaign for international recognition. Several countries have vowed never to recognise the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and others have said they will only do so if human rights in the country are respected.

The Taliban previously ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001 and received limited diplomatic recognition. Only three UN member states—Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE)—recognised the Islamic Emirate as the rightful government of Afghanistan. The Islamic Emirate received recognition from the partially recognised Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. However, Chechen President Aslan Maskhadov later described the Islamic Emirate as an "illegitimate" government.

The Taliban's takeover in 2021 was widely criticised by the international community. The United States and much of the West will base future decisions about Taliban recognition on human rights and inclusivity considerations. The Taliban government is unlikely to meet these conditions, making U.S. recognition a long shot. Regional players are more likely to eventually opt for recognition due to geographic factors, but for now, they are taking a wait-and-see approach.

While no country has recognised the Taliban government, senior officials from several countries have met with the Taliban leadership. China, Russia, and Pakistan have engaged diplomatically with the Taliban, but have not given any signs of recognition. India has said it will help Afghanistan whenever required but does not recognise the country.

The Taliban's continued rule without international recognition has had significant implications for Afghanistan. The country is facing severe economic and humanitarian crises, with billions of dollars in Afghan assets and funds abroad frozen. The lack of recognition and the resulting economic fallout have contributed to Afghanistan's status as one of the least developed countries in the world.

Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates recognised the Taliban's control of Afghanistan in the 1990s

Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) were the only three countries that recognised the Taliban's control of Afghanistan in the 1990s.

The Taliban, an ultraconservative political and religious faction, emerged in Afghanistan in the mid-1990s following the withdrawal of Soviet troops, the collapse of Afghanistan's communist regime, and the breakdown of civil order. The group, whose name means "seekers of religious knowledge", was formed by former fighters who were educated in traditional Islamic schools (madrasas) in Pakistan.

The Taliban's promise to restore peace and security and enforce their own version of Sharia law resonated with Afghans, who were weary of the mujahideen's excesses and infighting. By 1996, the Taliban had seized the capital, Kabul, and gained control of about two-thirds of the country. They established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with Mullah Omar as their leader.

The Taliban's rule was marked by a strict interpretation of Sharia law, which resulted in brutal treatment of Afghans. They committed massacres, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians, and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of land and destroying homes. They also banned girls and young women from attending school and most forms of employment and required women to wear the burqa and be accompanied by a male relative in public.

The Taliban's harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic law, as well as their harbouring of Osama bin Laden, led to international condemnation and isolation. Foreign governments shunned the country, and Afghanistan became one of the poorest and most backward countries in the world.

Despite widespread criticism, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE recognised the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. Pakistan, which shared a long and porous border with Afghanistan, served as the Taliban's principal channel to the world. However, Pakistan had relatively little influence on the Taliban, whose leaders were resistant to outside pressure and advice.

Saudi Arabia, a conservative Islamic kingdom, shared ideological similarities with the Taliban and was one of the few countries to provide substantial aid to the group.

The UAE was the third country to recognise the Taliban's rule. However, it is important to note that the Taliban's control of Afghanistan in the 1990s was not widely recognised by the international community, and their regime lacked formal international standing.

The Taliban has campaigned for international recognition since taking over

Since taking control of Afghanistan by force in 2021, the Taliban has campaigned for international recognition as the country's legitimate government. However, despite nominally maintaining relations with Afghanistan, no country has extended diplomatic recognition to the Taliban regime.

The Taliban's takeover was widely criticised by the international community, and several countries have vowed never to recognise the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Some nations have stated that they will only recognise the Taliban if human rights in the country are respected.

The Taliban has repeatedly expressed the expectation that the international community will recognise their authority as the new government of Afghanistan and has taken several procedural steps to pursue recognition. Their overtures seem driven by pressing economic needs and the desire to see funds unfrozen and receive various forms of assistance. The Taliban has nominated Suhail Shaheen, a longtime member and former spokesperson for the group's political office in Qatar, to serve as ambassador to the United Nations. They have also encouraged foreign embassies, including those of the United States and European states, to return to Kabul.

However, the Taliban has demonstrated a clear prioritisation of maintaining internal cohesion and asserting authority domestically. The current caretaker government is made up entirely of Taliban leadership, excluding women and other political stakeholders, and includes several internationally sanctioned figures. The group has renamed the Afghan government the Islamic Emirate, despite lobbying from the United States, Russia, China, and Pakistan against doing so. Taliban leadership has suppressed demonstrations across the country, with protestors and journalists being detained and beaten. They have effectively banned girls' education, discouraged women from returning to work, and disbanded the Ministry of Women's Affairs.

Several countries have designated the Taliban as a terrorist organisation, and the group remains on terrorist watch lists worldwide. The Taliban's legacy of brutality and abuses of human rights have made the prospects for greater acceptance unclear.

Despite the lack of formal recognition, some countries have accredited Taliban diplomats at the chargé d'affaires level. In September 2023, China became the first country to formally name a new ambassador to Afghanistan since the Taliban takeover, and in January 2024, China recognised the Taliban's envoy. However, China still does not formally recognise the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan.

The US-led military campaign in 2001 targeted terrorist facilities and Taliban assets

The US-led military campaign in 2001, known as Operation Enduring Freedom, targeted terrorist facilities and Taliban assets in Afghanistan. The campaign was a direct response to the September 11 attacks, which were coordinated by al-Qaeda operatives.

The US demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden, the leader of al-Qaeda, but the Taliban refused. As a result, the US, alongside the UK, launched airstrikes against al-Qaeda and Taliban targets in Afghanistan, with logistical support from France, Germany, Australia, and Canada. The air campaign softened Taliban defences, allowing coalition forces to begin a ground invasion, supported by anti-Taliban Northern Alliance rebels.

The invasion targeted al-Qaeda training camps and Taliban military installations, including in Kabul, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Konduz, and Mazar-e-Sharif. The coalition also conducted airdrops of humanitarian supplies for Afghan civilians.

The Taliban called the actions "an attack on Islam", and, as the coalition forces advanced, Taliban officials and their forces retreated. By early December, the last Taliban stronghold, Kandahar, had fallen, and Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar went into hiding.

Despite the success of the invasion, al-Qaeda and Taliban forces regrouped in the mountainous border region between Afghanistan and Pakistan, engaging in guerilla-style warfare and targeting elected government officials, aid workers, and foreigners.

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