Battleground Afghanistan: Four Nations That Invaded The Country

Afghanistan has been at war with various nations for decades. The country has been invaded by the Soviets, the British, and most recently, the United States.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 was triggered by the September 11 attacks. The US demanded that the Taliban extradite Osama bin Laden, the leader of al-Qaeda, to the US. When the Taliban refused, the US and its allies invaded Afghanistan, declaring Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the war on terror. The US-led forces toppled the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate and established the Islamic Republic.

The Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces. The conflict officially ended with the 2021 Taliban offensive, which overthrew the Islamic Republic and re-established the Islamic Emirate. The US-led military presence in Afghanistan ended in August 2021, marking the country's longest war.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, in response to the 9/11 attacks, overthrew the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate

On October 7, 2001, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, the US-led coalition began attacks on Afghanistan, targeting the Taliban and al-Qaeda, the perpetrators of the 9/11 attacks. The invasion, dubbed "Operation Enduring Freedom", was intended to dismantle al-Qaeda and overthrow the Taliban regime, which had imposed an extreme version of Islam on the country and perpetrated human rights abuses, especially against women and girls. The US was joined by an international coalition, with the UK as a key ally, offering military support from the start of the invasion preparations.

The invasion began with an intense bombing campaign by American and British forces, targeting Taliban and al-Qaeda installations in major cities. Logistical support was provided by France, Germany, Australia, and Canada, and later, troops were provided by the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance rebels. The air campaign softened Taliban defenses, allowing the coalition to begin a ground invasion, with Northern Alliance forces providing most of the troops and the US and other nations giving air and ground support.

By November 12, just over a month after the military action began, Taliban officials and their forces retreated from the capital, Kabul. This retreat followed the fall of several Taliban strongholds, including Mazar-e-Sharif on November 9 and Kandahar on December 6, the spiritual home of the Taliban. By early December, with Kandahar having fallen, Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar went into hiding, bringing an end to Taliban rule.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan was a swift military operation that successfully overthrew the Taliban regime and marked the beginning of a 20-year conflict that would become the longest war in US history. The invasion was a response to the 9/11 attacks, perpetrated by al-Qaeda, which was based in Afghanistan and sheltered by the Taliban regime. The goal of the invasion was to dismantle al-Qaeda and overthrow the Taliban, and it achieved those initial objectives within a matter of weeks.

The Taliban regrouped and waged an insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces

The Taliban's tactics included classic "war of the flea" tactics, which the Coalition continued to fight largely according to the Taliban "game plan". The Taliban's tactics included guerrilla warfare, suicide bombings, and targeted assassinations. The Taliban also used profiling and collective punishment, and targeted communities perceived as supporting anti-Taliban groups. The Taliban also targeted entire neighbourhoods, tribes, and ethnic groups for the actions of individuals who took up arms against their government.

The Taliban's counter-insurgency measures were heavy-handed and often counterproductive, fuelling the very threats they sought to suppress. The Taliban's tactics included arbitrary detention, torture, extrajudicial killings, and mutilation of enemy corpses. The Taliban also evicted families of suspected ISKP members and burned down their houses.

The Taliban's counter-insurgency measures also included more nuanced approaches, such as relocating Taliban security personnel to prevent their men from becoming enmeshed in local feuds, and offering to release prisoners on condition that tribal leaders offered guarantees of good behaviour. The Taliban also launched sweeping efforts at disarmament, including unprecedented house-to-house searches to hunt for weapons and confiscate materiel. The Taliban also enlisted the soft power of religious scholars, trying to persuade the entire country not to resist Taliban rule.

The Taliban also took limited steps to manage the risks posed by other militants who remained largely dormant but dangerous, including al-Qaeda and other jihadist groups with regional or global ambitions. The Taliban's way of handling these groups aimed at containing them without provoking them to turn against their nascent government. The Taliban's counter-insurgency measures were heavy-handed and often counterproductive, fuelling the very threats they sought to suppress.

The US-led coalition remained in Afghanistan, forming a security mission (ISAF) to prevent the Taliban from returning to power

The US-led coalition remained in Afghanistan after the initial invasion, forming the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to carry out a security mission and prevent the Taliban from returning to power. ISAF was a multinational military mission with troops from the UK, Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Estonia, and others. It was established by the United Nations Security Council in December 2001, with the primary objective of enabling the Afghan Transitional Administration to provide effective security across the country and rebuild key government institutions. This was in response to the September 11 attacks, which brought attention to Afghanistan as the plot had been hatched by al-Qaeda, with some of the hijackers having trained in the country.

ISAF's initial mandate was to secure the Afghan capital of Kabul and its surrounding areas against opposition forces. From 2003, NATO took command of the force, and the UN Security Council mandated the gradual expansion of ISAF's operations to cover the whole country. ISAF provided support to the Afghan government and the international community in security sector reform, including mentoring, training, and operational support to the Afghan National Army (ANA) and the Afghan National Police (ANP). The aim was to build professional, independent, and sustainable forces capable of providing security to the Afghan people throughout the country.

ISAF was one of the largest coalitions in history and NATO's longest and most challenging mission to date. It played a crucial role in the broader war in Afghanistan against the Taliban insurgency. However, despite the presence of 40,000 ISAF troops in 2007, Afghanistan was still considered to be in "serious danger" of falling into Taliban control. From 2011 onwards, responsibility for security was gradually transitioned to Afghan forces, with the transition process completed by the end of 2014 when the ISAF mission ended.

The Taliban continued to attack rural districts and carry out suicide attacks in major cities

The Taliban's attacks on rural districts and major cities were part of a broader strategy to exert control over Afghanistan. The group had already established control over most of the country by 2001, but the U.S.-led invasion forced them to retreat to southern Afghanistan and across the border to Pakistan.

In 2014, the U.S.-led coalition formally ended its combat mission in Afghanistan, putting the Afghan National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF) in charge of the country's security. However, the ANDSF faced significant challenges in holding territory and defending population centers.

The US-led coalition formally ended its combat mission in 2014, transferring security responsibilities to the Afghan military and police

The US-led coalition, known as the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), was tasked with creating the conditions for the Afghan government to exercise its authority throughout the country and build the capacity of the Afghan national security forces. ISAF was led by NATO and included troops from 42 countries, including all 28 NATO member states.

The ISAF mission was completed in December 2014 when the Afghan National Defence and Security Forces assumed full responsibility for security across the country. The US-led coalition's focus then shifted to military training and counterterrorism.

The US-led coalition's combat mission ended with a ceremony at the ISAF headquarters in Kabul, during which the coalition's flag was rolled up. In a statement, US President Barack Obama said that the longest war in American history was coming to a "responsible conclusion".

Despite the end of the combat mission, violence in Afghanistan continued. The Taliban had launched increasingly deadly attacks in the preceding year, killing record numbers of Afghan civilians and Afghan security forces.

The new, two-year mission, named "Resolute Support", would continue the coalition's training of Afghan security forces. Around 13,000 foreign troops, mostly Americans, would remain in the country as part of this mission.

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