Austria-Hungary's Imperialism: Serbia's Loss Of Sovereignty

The Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a significant event in the lead-up to World War I. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo was the catalyst for this invasion, which aimed to suppress Serbian nationalism and maintain the integrity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This event set off a chain reaction, with Russia, France, Britain, and other major powers entering the conflict, ultimately resulting in the First World War.

The Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia

On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with an ultimatum, demanding that all anti-Austrian propaganda within Serbia be suppressed and that they be allowed to investigate the archduke's killing. Serbia accepted all but one of the demands, but Austria-Hungary broke off diplomatic relations and proceeded with military preparedness measures. On July 28, 1914, exactly one month after Franz Ferdinand's assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I.

The first invasion of Serbia, dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership, began on August 12, 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army crossed the Drina River. The invasion was marked by atrocities against Serbian civilians, including massacres, hostage-taking, and the destruction of villages. Despite three unsuccessful invasion attempts, the Austro-Hungarians persisted and launched a second invasion in September 1914, engaging all their forces. This offensive was also repelled by the Serbian army, but the invaders retained a foothold in the country.

Convinced that Serbia was near defeat, the Austro-Hungarians launched a third offensive in November 1914, exploiting their superiority in artillery. They captured Valjevo and Belgrade, forcing the Royal Serbian Army to retreat. However, in early December, the Serbs launched a counterattack, decisively defeating the Austro-Hungarians and recapturing Belgrade. The invasion had failed, dealing a blow to the pride of Austria-Hungary's military and civilian leadership.

Despite the setbacks, German officials urged their Austro-Hungarian counterparts to launch another offensive, and in September 1915, Germany and Bulgaria formed a secret military alliance against Serbia. On October 5, 1915, Austria-Hungary and Germany jointly invaded Serbia for the fourth time, now with Bulgarian support. Within six weeks, Serbia was conquered, and the country was divided into occupation zones. The invasion resulted in the occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers until the end of World War I.

The occupation of Serbia

The Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces occupied Serbia from late 1915 until the end of World War I. On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of the First World War.

The First Invasion of Serbia

The first invasion of Serbia, which began on 12 August 1914, was dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership. During this invasion, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied parts of Serbia for thirteen days. Their objectives were not only to eliminate Serbia as a threat but also to punish the country for fuelling South Slav irredentism within the Monarchy. The invasion turned into a war of annihilation, with Austro-Hungarian troops committing numerous war crimes against Serbian civilians. Mass killings took place in several towns in northern Serbia, with thousands of Serb civilians being executed, beaten, hanged, stabbed, mutilated, or burned alive.

The Second and Third Invasions

On 8 September 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion, this time engaging all their forces. However, they faced fierce resistance from the Serbian army and were pushed back. On 5 November 1914, the Austro-Hungarians launched a third offensive, exploiting their superiority in artillery and capturing Belgrade by the end of the month.

By January 1916, all of Serbia had been occupied by the Central Powers. Serbia was divided into two separate occupation zones: an Austro-Hungarian zone and a Bulgarian zone, both governed under a military administration. The Austro-Hungarian occupation zone covered the northern three-quarters of Serbia and was ruled by the Military General Governorate of Serbia (MGG/S). The goal of the Austro-Hungarian administration was to denationalise the Serb population and exploit the country's economic resources.

The Austro-Hungarian Army imposed martial law, banned all political organisations, forbade public assembly, and brought schools under its control. They also engaged in hostage-taking, burned villages, and responded to uprisings with public hangings and summary executions. During the occupation, between 150,000 and 200,000 Serb civilians were deported to internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary.

Liberation of Serbia

In September 1918, Allied forces broke through the Salonica front, leading to the surrender of Bulgaria and the quick liberation of Serbia. By 1 November 1918, all of pre-war Serbia had been liberated, bringing an end to the three-year Central Powers occupation.

Serbian resistance to occupation

The Serbian resistance to occupation during World War I and World War II took various forms, from guerrilla warfare to civil resistance.

Serbian Resistance in World War I

During World War I, Serbia was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces from 1915 until the end of the war. The Serbian resistance to this occupation was led by former soldiers who had remained in the country, known as Chetniks. The Chetniks had a long history of guerrilla warfare, dating back to the Ottoman rule. They received strong local support and were considered heroes by the Serbian population.

The first organised guerrilla group was formed in early 1916 in the Novi Pazar and Kosovska Mitrovica districts, led by former army captain Kosta Vojinović. In response to the growing resistance, the Austro-Hungarian military employed small Ottoman and Albanian counter-guerrilla units to suppress the Chetniks. Despite these efforts, the Chetnik movement continued to grow, with experienced guerrilla leader Kosta Pećanac joining the resistance in 1917.

In February 1917, a rebellion led by Vojinović broke out near Kuršumlija and Prokuplje, with the insurgents successfully liberating several towns. However, this uprising was eventually put down by the Austro-Hungarian Army, resulting in the deaths of 20,000 Serbs.

Serbian Resistance in World War II

During World War II, Yugoslavia was invaded and occupied by Axis forces, including Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria. The Serbian resistance to this occupation took two main forms: the Chetniks, a conservative royalist and nationalist force, and the Partisans, a communist-led movement propagating pan-Yugoslav tolerance.

The Chetniks, led by Colonel Draža Mihailović, initially resisted the Axis invasion but later collaborated with the Italian, German, and Ustaše forces. On the other hand, the Partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito, consistently fought against the Axis powers and their collaborators. The Partisans were recognised by the Soviet Union, while the Chetniks received support from the Western Allies until the Tehran Conference in 1943.

The Partisans employed guerrilla warfare tactics and enjoyed strong support from the local population, allowing them to control large areas of Yugoslav territory. They established people's committees to act as civilian governments in the liberated areas and even set up limited arms industries. The Chetniks, on the other hand, were almost exclusively supported by the Serbian population and collaborated with the occupying forces, targeting Muslims and Croats.

As the war progressed, the Partisans gained increasing recognition and support from the Western Allies, who eventually switched their support from the Chetniks. The Partisans received supplies, tactical air support, and even had a permanent liaison officer from Britain, Brigadier General Fitzroy Maclean, parachuted to their headquarters.

The Partisans' general offensive in March 1945, with about 800,000 men organised into four armies, successfully liberated large parts of Yugoslavia, including Sarajevo and Zagreb. By May 1945, they had captured Maribor and Ljubljana, forcing the Germans to surrender unconditionally.

Civil Resistance in the 1990s

In the 1990s, Serbia experienced another wave of resistance, this time against the regime of Serbian dictator Slobodan Milošević. A student-led organisation called Otpor ("Resistance") played a crucial role in mobilising civil resistance and shifting the political culture toward opposition to Milošević's regime. They employed creative street theatre, mockery, and symbolic protests to empower people and show the vulnerability of the dictatorship.

Otpor also targeted members of the security forces and other regime supporters, trying to get them to defect to the opposition. They built grassroots support outside Belgrade and put pressure on party leaders to unite behind a single opposition candidate. This eventually led to the defeat of Milošević in the 2000 elections and the restoration of democracy in Serbia.

The Serbian economy under occupation

The Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia during World War I, from late 1915 until the end of the war, had a devastating impact on the country's economy. The occupying forces, led by the Austro-Hungarian military, implemented a range of measures to exploit Serbia's economic resources and labour while suppressing Serbian national identity. Here is an overview of the Serbian economy under occupation:

Economic Exploitation:

• The occupying forces confiscated and requisitioned various materials, including wool, copper, brass, nickel, and zinc, as well as food and leather. These resources were transported to Belgrade and then to Austria-Hungary.
• The Austro-Hungarian and German authorities clashed over the latter's ruthless system of requisition, which resulted in famine and pauperisation of the Serbian population.
• The Germans controlled the "Etappenzone," an area behind the front lines dedicated to agricultural production to supply their troops on the Salonica front.
• Despite the exploitation of mines, the Dual Monarchy failed to meet its need for vital raw materials as Germany took two-thirds of the production from Serbia as reparations for its military aid.

Famine and Food Shortages:

• Austro-Hungarian reports noted famine threatening the occupation zone and a desperate population after nearly four years of constant war.
• The return of refugees exacerbated food shortages, and there were urgent calls for relief aid to avoid disaster.
• Soldiers destroyed or captured much of Serbia's foodstuffs and livestock, leading to severe food rationing.
• Starvation claimed the lives of more than 8,000 Serbians during the first winter of the occupation, according to Red Cross reports.

Labour and Deportation:

• Between 150,000 and 200,000 men, women, and children were deported to internment and concentration camps in Austria-Hungary, such as Mauthausen, Doboj, Nagymegyer, Arad, and Kecskemét.
• The occupying authorities viewed these deportations as a preventive measure to discourage insurgent activities.
• In addition, about 30,000 Serb civilians were sent to Austrian camps or used as forced labour, particularly in agriculture and industry.
• The large-scale deportations caused international concern and became a scandal, prompting interventions from countries like Spain and the Holy See.

Impact on Education and Culture:

• The occupying forces closed down significant cultural institutions, including the Royal Serbian Academy, the National Museum, and the National Library, looting their artefacts and art collections.
• The University of Belgrade, publishing houses, and bookshops were also shut down, and schoolbooks in foreign languages were banned.
• Serbian students were forced to be educated in German, following Austrian academic standards, with teachers imported from Austria.

Denationalisation and Repression:

• The occupational authorities aimed to denationalise the Serb population, banning political organisations, public assemblies, and imposing control over schools.
• Serbian national consciousness was viewed as an existential threat to Austria-Hungary, leading to measures such as banning the Cyrillic script and traditional Serbian clothing.
• Public gatherings and political parties were prohibited, and street names associated with Serbian national identity were changed.
• The Gregorian calendar replaced the Julian calendar, and Serbian students were subjected to a German-language education system.

The economic exploitation, labour deportations, and cultural suppression implemented by the Austro-Hungarian occupation forces had severe consequences for Serbia's economy and society during and after World War I.

The liberation of Serbia

During the occupation, Serbia endured harsh conditions under the Austro-Hungarian rule, including denationalisation, political repression, economic exploitation, and atrocities committed against the civilian population. The liberation brought an end to these atrocities and allowed Serbia to begin the process of recovery and reconstruction.

Frequently asked questions