Austria And Russia: A Historical Alliance Explored

Austria and Russia have had a complex relationship over the years, marked by various alliances and conflicts. The two countries have a history of diplomatic relations and have found themselves on the same side in several wars, including the War of the Polish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession, and the Seven Years' War. However, their relationship has also been strained at times, with Russia and Austria-Hungary fighting on opposing sides during World War I. In more recent times, following the dissolution of the USSR, the Russian Federation has maintained close relations with Austria, which has sought to balance its neutrality with economic cooperation.

The Austro-Russian Alliance of 1781

Russia and Austria have had a long history of bilateral relations, and their predecessor states have also had connections. The two countries' relations became vital to European security as the domains of the two vast monarchies expanded.

The Russo-Prussian Alliance was extended in 1777, but at the imperial court in Saint Petersburg, the influence of the pro-Prussian faction was eclipsed by the pro-Austrian faction led by Grigory Potemkin. After the death of Maria Theresa of Austria, her son Joseph II wanted to improve relations with Russia, and secret negotiations that began in early 1781 resulted in the formation of the Austro-Russian alliance.

The Russo-Prussian alliance continued formally until 1788 but lost its significance with the declaration of the Austro-Russian alliance, which isolated Prussia internationally. The most notable consequences of the Austro-Russian alliance were the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791) and the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792). However, by 1790, the alliance was strained as Russia informed Austria that it had no intention to interfere in a potential conflict between Austria and Prussia.

The formation of the Austro-Russian Alliance of 1781 was influenced by the shifting geopolitical interests of the Russian Empire and the changing dynamics within the imperial court of Saint Petersburg. The alliance had significant consequences, leading to wars with the Ottoman Empire and isolating Prussia. However, the alliance was relatively short-lived, as differences between Austria and Russia emerged, and the two powers did not maintain a united front against Prussia.

The Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792)

The Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to reclaim lands lost to the Russian Empire during the previous Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). The conflict took place at the same time as the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791), the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790), and the Theatre War.

In May and June 1787, Catherine II of Russia made a triumphal procession through Novorossiya and the annexed Crimea, alongside her ally, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor. These events, along with rumours of Catherine's Greek Plan and friction caused by mutual complaints of infringements of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, stirred up public opinion in the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. The British and French ambassadors lent their unconditional support to the Ottoman war party.

In 1787, the Ottomans demanded that the Russians evacuate Crimea and relinquish their holdings near the Black Sea, which Russia considered a casus belli. Russia declared war on 19 August 1787, and the Ottomans imprisoned the Russian ambassador, Yakov Bulgakov. Ottoman preparations were inadequate, and the moment was ill-chosen, as Russia and Austria were now in alliance. The Ottomans mustered forces throughout their domain, and Süleyman Bey from Anatolia personally led 4,000 soldiers to the front.

The Ottoman Empire opened its offensive with an attack on two fortresses near Kinburn, in southern Ukraine. Russian General Alexander Suvorov held off these two Ottoman sea-borne attacks in September and October 1787, thus securing Crimea. In Moldavia, Russian troops captured the Ottoman cities of Chocim and Jassy. Ochakov, at the mouth of the Dnieper, fell on 6 December 1788 after a six-month siege by Prince Grigory Potemkin and Suvorov. All civilians in the captured cities were massacred by order of Potemkin.

Although the Ottoman Empire suffered a series of defeats against the Russians, they found some success against the Austrians, led by Emperor Joseph II, in Serbia and Transylvania. By 1789, the Ottoman Empire was being pushed back in Moldavia by Russian and Austrian forces. On 1 August, the Russians, under Suvorov, attained a victory against the Ottomans, led by Osman Pasha, at Focșani, followed by another Russian victory at Rymnik on 22 September. The Russians then drove the Ottomans away from near the Râmnicul Sărat river. Suvorov was given the title Count Rymniksky following the battle.

The Ottomans suffered further losses when the Austrians, under General Ernst Gideon von Laudon, repelled an Ottoman invasion of Croatia, while an Austrian counterattack took Belgrade. A Greek revolt, which further drained the Ottoman war effort, brought about a truce between the Ottoman Empire and Austria. Meanwhile, the Russians continued their advance when Suvorov captured the reportedly "impenetrable" Ottoman fortress of Izmail at the entrance of the Danube in December 1790. This became possible due to Fyodor Ushakov's victory at Tendra.

A final Ottoman defeat at Machin on 9 July 1791, coupled with Russian concerns about Prussia entering the war, led to a truce agreed upon on 31 July 1791. After the capture of the fortress, Suvorov marched on Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), where the Russians hoped to establish a Christian empire. However, the slaughters committed during the ensuing period somewhat defiled Suvorov's reputation, and there were allegations that he was drunk at the Siege of Ochakov.

The Treaty of Jassy was signed on 9 January 1792, recognising Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Yedisan (Odessa and Ochakov) was also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe, while the Russian Asiatic frontier—the Kuban River—remained unchanged. The Ottoman war goal to reclaim Crimea had failed, and if not for the French Revolution, the Ottoman Empire's situation could have been much worse.

The Russo-Prussian Alliance

The alliance laid the foundation for the "northern system" in Russian politics, in which Russia and Prussia were allied with Great Britain. The Anglo-Prussian Alliance had waned by this time, but the ties between Great Britain and Russia strengthened, with a trade alliance signed in 1766. The Russo-Prussian Alliance was also aimed at counteracting the power of the Habsburgs. From Russia's perspective, Austria was less willing to compromise on issues related to the expanding Russian sphere of influence, making it less attractive as an ally.

Over time, Russia's attention shifted towards the south and the Ottoman Empire. This shift, advocated by Grigory Potemkin, reduced the strategic value of Prussia as an ally and made Austria a more appealing candidate once again. The Russo-Prussian Alliance was extended in 1777, but at the imperial court in Saint Petersburg, the influence of the pro-Prussian faction was eclipsed by the pro-Austrian one. After the death of Maria Theresa of Austria, her successor, Joseph II, sought to improve relations with Russia, and secret negotiations resulted in the formation of the Austro-Russian Alliance in May-June 1781. The Russo-Prussian Alliance formally existed until 1788 but lost most of its significance with the declaration of the Austro-Russian alliance, leaving Prussia isolated on the international scene.

The Holy Alliance

The primary objective of the Holy Alliance was to uphold the divine right of kings and promote Christian values in European political life. The alliance treaty, drafted by Tsar Alexander I, emphasised governing based on "justice, love, and peace", derived from Christian principles. The monarchs of these nations, representing Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox confessions, pledged to act on these principles in both their internal and foreign affairs. They agreed to consider each other as "'fellow countrymen' and lend aid to one another, viewing themselves as 'fathers of families' guiding their subjects.

World War I

Austria-Hungary and Russia were not allies during World War I. In fact, they were enemies, fighting each other on the Eastern Front.

The Road to War

The origins of World War I can be traced back to the complex web of alliances and rivalries between the European powers. In the years leading up to the war, Austria-Hungary and Russia were both vying for influence and expansion in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary, seeking to consolidate its hold on the region, annexed the former Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. This move alarmed Russia, which had its own expansionist ambitions in the Balkans and considered the region to be within its sphere of influence.

The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On June 28, 1914, tensions escalated when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated by Bosnian Serbs. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination and issued an ultimatum, expecting it to be rejected and thus providing a pretext for war. Serbia, backed by Russia, refused to back down.

The Outbreak of World War I

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary officially declared war on Serbia. In response, Russia mobilized its army and issued an ultimatum to Austria-Hungary, warning against attacking Serbia. As the crisis escalated, Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, demanded that Russia cease its mobilization. When Russia refused, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, marking the official start of World War I.

The Eastern Front

During the war, Austria-Hungary and Russia fought each other on the Eastern Front, which saw some of the most brutal and devastating battles of the conflict. The two empires clashed in a series of campaigns that resulted in massive casualties on both sides. The war effort exhausted both countries, leading to the overthrow of the monarchies and the dissolution of their empires by the war's end.

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