Collectivism In Belarus: Who Embraced This Ideology?

Collectivism is a worldview where people tend to see themselves as part of a larger group rather than focus on their individuality. In Belarus, collectivism is reflected in the country's political history and workplace culture. During Soviet times, Belarus had a communist political system that was constitutionally defined as a Marxist-Leninist single-party socialist republic. The sole governing party, the Communist Party of Byelorussia (CPB), promoted collectivist ideals of unity and collective decision-making. After the establishment of a Republic in 1991, Belarus experienced a period of political change, with the first Belarusian leader, Stanislav Shushkevich, supporting social democratic reforms and moving away from the Soviet past. However, his successor, Alexander Lukashenko, reintroduced Soviet-era functions and symbols, and his authoritarian government has been characterized as Europe's last dictatorship.

In Belarusian workplaces, there is a focus on hierarchy and respect for authority, with formal language and titles being commonly used. Decisions are often reached through discussion and consensus-building, prioritizing the collective good over individual ideas. This collectivist mindset also extends to negotiation practices, where building trust and rapport are prioritized, and a long-term perspective is taken. While Belarus has experienced political and social changes, the influence of its historical and political background, including its time as a Soviet republic, has shaped its culture, including the presence of collectivist tendencies.

Peasants

The peasants in Belarus have played a significant role in the country's history, particularly in the context of nationalism and collectivization. Here is an overview of the role of peasants in Belarus, focusing on their relationship with collectivism:

Peasant Resistance to Collectivization:

During the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Soviet Union, under Joseph Stalin, introduced forced collectivization of its agricultural sector. This policy aimed to integrate individual landholdings and labour into collectively-controlled farms, known as "kolkhozes" and "sovkhozes." The Soviet leadership believed that replacing individual peasant farms with collective ones would increase food supply and support industrialization. However, this policy faced significant resistance from peasants, including those in Belarus.

The peasants in Belarus resisted collectivization for several reasons. Firstly, they resented the seizure of their grain and produce by the state, which often left them with little for themselves and their families. They argued that such seizures would lead to starvation, and indeed, several famines occurred during this period. Additionally, the idea of collective farms was seen as a threat to their traditional way of life and individual freedom. Some even viewed collectivization as the end of the world.

The Impact of Collectivization on Peasants:

Collectivization had a significant impact on the lives of peasants in Belarus. Many experienced a reduction in their income and agricultural output. The kulaks, or wealthier peasants, were particularly targeted, with their land confiscated and given to collective farms. Those who resisted were deported, sent to labour camps, or even killed. The introduction of collective farms also disrupted traditional gender roles, with women playing a prominent role in spreading rumours and leading protests against collectivization.

Peasant Support for Collectivization:

While many peasants resisted collectivization, there were also those who supported or acquiesced to the policy. Some peasants, particularly those with smaller landholdings, were attracted to the idea of collective farms as a way to access better land and resources. Additionally, the promise of social services and the idea of cooperative economic enterprise may have appealed to some peasants who felt isolated and wanted greater social support.

The Legacy of Collectivization:

The impact of collectivization on peasants in Belarus was long-lasting. Agricultural yields declined, and the situation persisted into the 1980s, with Soviet farmers lagging behind their counterparts in the United States. The disruption caused by collectivization and peasant resistance also contributed to the Great Famine of 1932-1933, which had devastating consequences, particularly in Ukraine.

In conclusion, the peasants in Belarus had a complex relationship with collectivism. While some resisted and suffered under forced collectivization, others eventually supported the policy or acquiesced to it. The impact of collectivization on their lives and the broader agricultural sector was significant and had long-term effects on Belarusian society.

Women

Societal Expectations and Gender Roles

In Belarus, traditional gender roles remain prevalent. Women are typically expected to take on domestic responsibilities, such as setting the dinner table and caring for the household and children. These obligations are deeply ingrained in the culture, and deviating from them can result in social repercussions. Men, on the other hand, are often seen as the breadwinners and are considered more powerful due to their role as financial providers.

Economic Disparities

Despite comprising 54% of the labour market, Belarusian women face economic inequalities. On average, they earn 80% of what men earn, and they are more likely to accept lower-paying jobs. Additionally, certain professions are legally off-limits for women, as the country maintains an official list of jobs that women are prohibited from pursuing, often related to hazardous industries or physically demanding work. These restrictions contribute to the financial instability that many Belarusian women experience.

Political Participation

Feminist groups and women's rights organisations have played a crucial role in advocating for gender equality and addressing social injustices in Belarus. These groups emerged in the early 1990s and include the Union of Women in Belarus, the League of Women in Belarus, the Committee of Soldiers' Mothers, and the Belarusian Organization of Working Women (BOWW). Despite facing opposition and restrictions, these organisations have promoted political and economic competence, gender equality, and the empowerment of women.

Protests and Political Prisoners

The Communist Party of Byelorussia

The CPB was organised on the principle of democratic centralism, which entails democratic and open discussion within the party, followed by unity in upholding the agreed-upon policies. The Party Congress, which convened every five years, was the highest body within the CPB. When Congress was not in session, the Central Committee was the highest authority, and most day-to-day responsibilities were delegated to the Politburo. The leader of the CPB was both the de facto chairman of the Politburo and the chief executive of the Republic, holding offices such as General Secretary, Premier, or head of state.

Ideologically, the CPB embraced Marxism-Leninism, a fusion of the ideas of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, which was formalised by Joseph Stalin as the party's guiding ideology. This ideology remained unchanged throughout the party's existence. The CPB was instrumental in creating the BSSR and played a significant role in the country's politics and governance during its time as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union.

In the 1930s, the CPB was heavily targeted by Stalin's purges, which removed many high-profile figures and a significant portion of its members. This disruption, coupled with the halt in social and cultural developments during this period, had a lasting impact on Byelorussian society and culture.

On July 28, 1990, the provision granting the CPB a monopoly on power in the Byelorussian SSR was excluded from the republic's constitution. Following the failed coup in Moscow in 1991, the BSSR proclaimed its political and economic independence from the Soviet Union on August 25, 1991, and was renamed the Republic of Belarus on September 19, 1991. This marked the end of the CPB's rule in Byelorussia, and the country transitioned to a new political system.

The Belarusian Popular Front

Formation and Ideology:

Impact and Achievements:

Opposition to Lukashenko:

In the 1990s, the Belarusian Popular Front emerged as the key political movement opposing President Alaksandar Lukashenka (also known as Alexander Lukashenko), who came to power in 1994. Lukashenko, with Russian support, staged a coup d'etat and held referendums in 1995 and 1996 that consolidated his authoritarian rule. The BPF resisted Lukashenko's policies, including his efforts to make Russian an official language and restore Soviet-era symbols. They formed a "shadow" cabinet of intellectuals and proposed economic and governmental reforms. The BPF supported Belarus' entry into NATO and the European Union, positioning themselves in opposition to Lukashenko's pro-Russian stance.

Splits and Repressions:

In the late 1990s, the Belarusian Popular Front split into two parties: the conservative wing, led by Zianon Pazniak, became the Conservative Christian Party – BPF, while the moderate majority formed the BPF Party. However, the BPF faced increasing repression under Lukashenko's regime. In 2005, Lukashenko restricted the usage of the words "Belarusian" and "National" in party names, forcing the BPF to change its name to "BPF Party." Protests against Lukashenko's authoritarian rule, including those by the BPF, were met with brutal police crackdowns, and leaders of the BPF were forced into exile. In 2021, Kastusiou, the leader of the BPF Party, was arrested by the Belarusian KGB, accused of attempting to organize an illegal coup against Lukashenko. The BPF Party was ultimately banned by the Supreme Court of Belarus in August 2023.

The Party of Communists of Belarus

The PCB is considered one of the major opposition parties in Belarus. It is affiliated with the Party of the European Left and is viewed by many in the region as "pro-Western." This is in contrast to the Communist Party of Belarus (CPB), which is a pro-presidential party that supports the government of President Alexander Lukashenko. The CPB was created in 1996 and has held more seats in the National Assembly of Belarus than any other party since the 2000 election, the first national election it participated in.

The PCB's main foreign policy goal is to strengthen national security through the development of the Belarus-Russia Union State and the phase reconstruction of voluntarily renewed Union nations, strengthening its political and economic independence. The party has enjoyed relations with other communist parties in post-Soviet states and worldwide.

At the 2004 parliamentary election, the PCB obtained 5.99% of the vote and 8 out of 110 seats in the House of Representatives. This number decreased to 6 seats in 2008 and even fewer in 2012, when it won 3 seats. However, in 2014, the party increased its representation by obtaining 5 seats. The PCB improved its results in subsequent elections, winning 8 seats in 2016 and 11 seats in 2019.

During the 2020-2021 Belarusian protests, the Communist Party of Belarus, which supports Lukashenko, participated in a meeting in support of the president.

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