Austria-Hungary's Invasion: World War I's First Strike

On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I. This declaration was the culmination of a series of events that began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia. The assassination was carried out by a Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, and served as the catalyst for the war.

Following the assassination, Austrian officials blamed Serbia and used it as a pretext for war. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which was largely accepted, apart from one condition. However, Austria-Hungary proceeded with the invasion, and within a month, all of Europe was at war.

Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany played a significant role in its decision to go to war. As tensions escalated between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Russia, a supporter of Serbia, began mobilizing its forces. With the backing of Germany, Austria-Hungary felt emboldened to act.

The Austrian-Hungarian Empire faced several challenges during World War I, including nationalism, disunity, and economic stagnation. The empire was comprised of multiple ethnic groups, and the rise of nationalism among these groups threatened its unity. Additionally, the empire lagged in industrialization compared to other great powers, and its military was ineffective, suffering defeats at the hands of Serbia and Italy.

As the war progressed, internal unrest grew, with various ethnic groups demanding independence. Ultimately, the empire's military deteriorated, and it was unable to withstand the onslaught of its enemies. The empire's demise was sealed with the collapse of the Central Powers and the declaration of independence by several new states within the empire.

The Balkan Front, 1918

The Balkan Front of 1918 was part of a series of conflicts in the region that stretched back to 1912. The Balkan Wars, which began in October 1912, were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. These wars were driven by nationalist aspirations and the desire to seize Ottoman territories. The First Balkan War ended in May 1913, but the Second Balkan War broke out in June 1913, with Bulgaria attacking its former allies. This war ended in August 1913, but the conflicts in the region continued into World War I, which began in 1914.

The Balkan Front of World War I was a diverse theatre of the war, with French, Serbian, British, Italian, Greek, Bulgarian and Austro-Hungarian troops all involved in the fighting. The front developed in a similar pattern to the Western Front, with both sides fortifying their positions and seeking advantages through air raids and small ground attacks.

In September 1918, the Allies launched a major offensive on the Balkan Front. On September 15, French and Serbian forces, commanded by General Franchet d'Esperey, broke through the Bulgarian-German front and advanced towards Skopje, which they reached in a few days. This offensive caused the Bulgarian government to ask for an armistice, which was signed on September 29. The Allies continued their advance through Albania and towards the Danube, reaching the Austro-Hungarian border just as the armistice with Austria-Hungary was signed on November 3, 1918.

The Balkan Front of 1918 was significant because it led to the collapse of Bulgaria and the end of the war with the Central Powers. The defeat of Bulgaria and the armistice with Austria-Hungary meant that the Allies were able to advance into Serbia, which had been occupied by the Central Powers since 1915. The Serbian army, which had suffered heavy casualties in the early years of the war, was able to move through Macedonia and into Belgrade, which they reached on October 31.

The Italian Front, 1915–16

The Italian Front, also known as the Alpine Front, was one of the main theatres of war during World War I. It involved a series of military engagements along the border between the Kingdom of Italy and Austria-Hungary from 1915 to 1918.

Italy's Entry into the War

In the years leading up to the war, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, in 1915, Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente powers, aiming to annex Austrian-controlled territories. This decision was influenced by secret promises made by the Entente powers in the Treaty of London in 1915.

Early Battles on the Italian Front

The Italian Front saw intense fighting from the outset, with Italy launching an offensive along the Isonzo River and in the Trentino region. The First Battle of the Isonzo began on June 23, 1915, and was marked by difficult terrain and strong Austro-Hungarian defensive positions. Despite Italy's numerical superiority, the first four battles of the Isonzo resulted in heavy casualties for both sides and little territorial gain.

The Strafexpedition

In May 1916, Austria-Hungary launched a counteroffensive known as the Strafexpedition ("punitive expedition") in the Trentino region. This offensive aimed to break through Italian lines and advance towards the Po River plain. While the Austro-Hungarians initially made gains, Italian counterattacks and the arrival of reinforcements halted their advance.

Battles of the Isonzo

The Battles of the Isonzo continued throughout 1916, with Italy launching several offensives along the Isonzo River. The Sixth Battle of the Isonzo resulted in the capture of the town of Gorizia, boosting Italian morale. However, subsequent battles along the Isonzo resulted in heavy casualties and minimal territorial gains for both sides.

Battle of Caporetto

In October 1917, Austro-Hungarian and German forces launched a joint offensive at Caporetto, employing new infiltration tactics and gas attacks. This offensive inflicted a massive defeat on Italy, causing Italian troops to retreat over 150 kilometres. However, the Central Powers were unable to capitalise on their victory, and Italian forces eventually recovered.

Battle of Vittorio Veneto

In October 1918, Italy launched its final offensive of the war, known as the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. Italian, French, and British forces attacked Austro-Hungarian positions along the Piave River. The Austro-Hungarian army was unable to withstand the assault, and Italy emerged victorious, capturing over 300,000 prisoners.

The Italian Front came to an end with the signing of the Armistice of Villa Giusti on November 3, 1918, which marked the surrender of Austria-Hungary. Italy's victory on the Italian Front contributed to the completion of Italian unification, as they gained control of territories such as Trentino and Trieste.

The Eastern Front, 1914–16

The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I that stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south. It encompassed the frontier between Russia and Romania on one side and Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Germany on the other. The term contrasts with the Western Front, which was being fought in Belgium and France. Unlike the static warfare on the Western Front, the fighting on the Eastern Front was more dynamic, often involving the flanking and encirclement of entire formations, and resulted in over 100,000 square miles of territory becoming occupied by a foreign power.

At the start of the war, Russia launched offensives against both Germany and Austria-Hungary that were meant to achieve a rapid victory. The invasion of East Prussia was completely defeated while the advance into Austria-Hungary stalled in the Carpathians. In 1915, the Central Powers' successful offensives in Galicia and Poland caused Russia to abandon the Polish salient, parts of Belarus and the Baltic region, and Galicia. However, the campaigns of 1914–15 also failed to achieve Germany's objective of taking Russia out of the war, and by 1916 Germany prioritised its resources for winning in the West.

Russia went on the offensive to take pressure off France at Verdun. Russia's attack near Lake Naroch in early 1916 was quickly defeated by Germany, but in the summer of 1916, the Brusilov Offensive became the largest Entente victory in the war. Russia inflicted over one million casualties on Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to redeploy divisions from the Western Front, at the cost of its own heavy losses.

In August 1916, Romania entered the war but was quickly overrun by Germany, though Russia helped prevent a total Romanian collapse. The events of the February Revolution in March 1917, caused by food shortages in Russian cities, began a decline in discipline among the troops. After the abdication of Emperor Nicholas II, the Russian Provisional Government chose to continue the war to fulfil its obligations to the Entente. In July 1917, Russia's last offensive of the war ended in failure, and in September, Germany captured Riga, bringing the German Army closer to the Russian capital. This was followed by a military coup attempt that weakened the Provisional Government.

The Bolsheviks overthrew the Russian Republic in the October Revolution of November 1917. Despite the political instability, the majority of the Russian Army remained intact and stayed at the front line until early 1918, though the Bolsheviks began taking steps to dissolve it in December 1917 while maintaining some forces against the Central Powers as their negotiations were ongoing.

The new Soviet government established by the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers in March 1918 after Operation Faustschlag, taking Russia out of the war and leading to a Central Powers victory. However, the Western Entente soon defeated the Central Powers, with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk being annulled by the Armistice of 11 November 1918.

The Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive

The offensive was initially conceived as a minor German operation to relieve Russian pressure on the Austro-Hungarians to their south on the Eastern Front. However, it resulted in the total collapse of the Russian lines and their retreat deep into Russia. The campaign lasted for most of the 1915 season, starting in early May and only ending due to bad weather in October.

General August von Mackensen, commanding both German and Austro-Hungarian forces, launched a surprise attack on May 2, following a heavy artillery bombardment. The Central Powers shattered the Russian defences, and the Russian lines collapsed. The Russian Third Army, facing the Austro-Hungarian IV Army and German XI Army, was forced to retreat, and the Central Powers recaptured most of Galicia, averting the Russian threat to Austria-Hungary.

The Battles of the Isonzo

The Italian commander, Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of frontal assault, planned to break through the Slovenian plateau, capture Ljubljana, and threaten Vienna. The First Battle of the Isonzo took place from June 23 to July 7, 1915, with the Italians attempting to cross the river and scale the heights beyond but ultimately being beaten back. The Italians launched subsequent attacks in July, October, and November, but only managed to penetrate a few miles into Austrian territory at a heavy cost.

Cadorna tried again in March 1916 but failed again. It wasn't until the sixth battle, from August 6 to 17, 1916, that the Italians captured Gorizia and secured a bridgehead across the Isonzo, achieving their first real victories. In the following three battles, the Italians changed their tactics to short, intense attacks to limit their casualties but still couldn't break through the formidable natural barriers protected by Austrian artillery.

In the tenth battle, from May 12 to June 8, 1917, Cadorna struck with massed troops and a larger number of guns but only gained a few yards of ground. The Italians launched another offensive from August 19 to September 12, deploying 51 divisions and 5,200 guns, and slowly pushed forward, dislodging the Austrians. Fearing that the Austrian front might collapse, the Germans sent reinforcements. On October 24, the Austro-German forces launched a heavy bombardment, routing the Italian army. The demoralized Italian troops retreated towards the Piave River, where they managed to hold the line on November 7, after one of the worst defeats in Italian history.

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