The Colonial History Of Brazil And Bolivia

Brazil and Bolivia are two South American countries with a rich history of colonisation.

Brazil was claimed by Portugal in 1500, when Pedro Alvares Cabral landed there and laid claim to it in the name of King Manuel I of Portugal. The Portuguese identified brazilwood as a valuable source of red dye and attempted to force indigenous groups to cut the trees. Brazil was named after this wood, which was highly sought-after in Renaissance Europe. The Portuguese did not use wide-scale military action to gain control of Brazil, instead trading with native Brazilians and collaborating in small military efforts against enemies of the native Brazilians. However, they gradually extended their control to larger and larger swaths of Brazil.

The colonisation of Brazil had devastating effects on the indigenous population. They were forced into slavery, with many working in mines and on sugar plantations. They were also forced to convert to Catholicism. The arrival of Europeans also brought foreign diseases, which the indigenous population had no immunity to.

In contrast, Bolivia was colonised by the Spanish. The Spanish conquest of Bolivia began in the early 16th century, and the region that now makes up Bolivia fell under the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Spanish conquest was remarkably easy due to the internal weakness of the rapidly expanding Inca Empire. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was led by Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque.

The Spanish colonial rule was traumatic for the indigenous peoples in Bolivia. They were susceptible to European diseases, and their population decreased rapidly. However, the resistance of the indigenous people of the Bolivian lowlands managed to delay the conquest and settlement of their lands.

The Spanish conquest of Bolivia in the 16th century

The Spanish conquest of Bolivia, then known as Upper Peru, began in the 16th century. The Spanish first arrived in the New World in 1524, led by Francisco Pizarro and his fellow conquistadors. The Spanish Empire was rapidly expanding, and the Inca Empire was internally weak, so the conquest was remarkably easy. In 1538, the Spaniards defeated the Incas near Lake Titicaca, allowing them to push into central and southern Bolivia. Despite continued native resistance, the Spanish founded the cities of La Paz in 1549 and Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1561.

The Spaniards were searching for mineral treasure, and they found it in Potosí, which had the Western world's largest concentration of silver. At its height in the 16th century, Potosí supported a population of more than 150,000, making it the world's largest urban center. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo introduced a coercive form of labor, the mita, which required native males from highland districts to spend every sixth year working in the mines.

During the first two decades of Spanish rule, the settlement of the Bolivian highlands was delayed by a civil war between the forces of Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, another conquistador. The two had divided the Incan territory, with the north under the control of Pizarro and the south under Almagro. Fighting broke out in 1537 when Almagro seized Cuzco after suppressing an Inca rebellion. Pizarro defeated and executed Almagro in 1538, but he was himself assassinated three years later by former supporters of Almagro. It wasn't until 1548, with the execution of Almagro's brother Gonzalo Pizarro, that Spain succeeded in reasserting its authority.

Indian resistance also delayed the conquest and settlement of the Bolivian lowlands. The Spanish established Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1561, but the Gran Chaco region remained a violent frontier throughout the colonial period. The Indians in this arid region, mostly Chiriguano, carried out relentless attacks on colonial settlements and remained independent of direct Spanish control.

The Bolivian War of Independence

The Spark of Revolution

The war's origins can be traced back to the establishment of government juntas in Sucre and La Paz following the Chuquisaca and La Paz revolutions. These juntas were short-lived, as the cities soon fell back under Spanish control. However, the conflict escalated with the May Revolution of 1810, which ousted the viceroy in Buenos Aires and established another junta. Buenos Aires dispatched three large military expeditions to Upper Peru, led by prominent figures, but they were defeated by the royalists.

Guerrilla Warfare

Despite initial setbacks, the conflict evolved into a guerrilla war known as the War of the Republiquetas. This prevented the royalists from strengthening their hold on the region. The war also gave rise to six guerrilla bands that formed in the backcountry of Charcas, controlling what became known as "republiquetas" or "little republics." These regions remained independent of royalist forces for over a decade, showcasing the resilience and determination of the Bolivian people.

The Role of Simón Bolívar

The war reached a turning point with the involvement of Simón Bolívar, considered the "Napoleon of South America." After liberating several other South American countries, Bolívar set his sights on Upper Peru. He joined forces with José de San Martín, and together, they played a crucial role in defeating the royalists in northern South America. This paved the way for the final stages of the war in Charcas.

The Fall of Royalist Forces

Antonio José de Sucre, a prominent general under Bolívar, led a decisive campaign against the last royalist forces in Charcas. In the Battle of Tumusla, the final royalist general, Pedro Antonio Olañeta, met his end at the hands of his own defected forces. This marked a significant victory, and on August 6, 1825, Bolivian independence was officially proclaimed.

The Birth of a New Nation

The newly independent nation faced important decisions, including choosing its name and determining its path forward. The country was named Bolivia in honour of Simón Bolívar, recognising his pivotal role in the fight for freedom. Bolívar himself served as the country's first president for five months, implementing reforms to benefit the indigenous population and reduce taxes.

The Bolivian National Revolution

On April 6, 1952, one of the junta members, General Seleme, was dismissed due to his secret support for the MNR. This sparked immediate action from the MNR, who launched a coup d'etat on April 9, 1952, with Hernan Siles Zuazo, the son of a former Bolivian president, leading the revolt. Despite facing a larger army, the revolutionaries were able to take control of the city of La Paz with the support of armed worker militias and the defection of young army conscripts.

The successful coup led to a radical shift in Bolivian politics, with the MNR coming to power and implementing a series of significant changes. In July 1952, universal suffrage was established, removing literacy and property requirements, which increased the number of eligible voters from 200,000 to nearly 1 million. The MNR also moved to control the armed forces, purging officers associated with past Conservative Party regimes and reducing the military's size and budget.

The MNR government also initiated a far-reaching agrarian reform process, establishing the Agrarian Reform Commission in January 1953. This commission, with advisers from Mexico, decreed the Agrarian Reform Law in August 1953, which abolished forced labour and redistributed rural property from traditional landlords to indigenous peasants. The law also provided for compensation to landlords in the form of government bonds.

Additionally, the MNR government nationalised the mining industry, turning two-thirds of Bolivia's mining industry over to the state-owned Mining Corporation of Bolivia (Comibol). This move was partly due to the influence of miners within the government, who had played a decisive role in the April 1952 fighting. The MNR gave worker representatives veto power in all Comibol decisions and allowed for co-governance in mine administration.

The Spanish conquest of Brazil in the 16th century

The Spanish did not conquer Brazil in the 16th century. It was the Portuguese who arrived in Brazil on 22 April 1500, led by explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the Tupi–Guarani language family.

Brazil was claimed for Portugal by the Portuguese fleet commanded by Cabral. The Portuguese identified brazilwood as a valuable red dye source and an exploitable product. The land was initially called Vera Cruz ("True Cross") by the Portuguese but was later renamed "Land of Brazil" by Brazilian-Portuguese settlers dealing with brazilwood.

The Portuguese crown divided the colony into 15 hereditary captaincies, or fiefs, in 1533. Each extended 50 leagues along the coast and an indefinite distance inland. These grants were distributed to courtiers, chiefly, who became known as donatários ("donees") and wielded extensive rights and privileges. However, only two of the captaincies were ultimately successful: São Vicente and Pernambuco.

The Portuguese brought with them diseases such as measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea and influenza, which killed tens of thousands of indigenous people. The Portuguese also brought African slaves to Brazil, who provided most of the workforce in the export economy.

The Dutch incursion in Brazil

The Dutch incursions in Brazil were ordered by the Dutch West India Company (WIC) and occurred during the 17th century. The Dutch incursions were considered the biggest political-military conflict in the colony, centred on the control of sugar and slave supply sources. Although they were concentrated in the Northeast, they were not just a regional episode. There were two interconnected, albeit distant, fronts: Brazil and Africa.

The Dutch incursions in Brazil can be divided into two main periods:

Invasion of Salvador, Bahia (1624-1625)

• On 10 May 1624, a WIC expedition with twenty-six ships carrying around 1,700 men under the command of Admiral Jacob Willekens attacked and conquered the city.
• In 1625, a combined Spanish and Portuguese force recaptured the city.

Invasion of Olinda and Recife, in Pernambuco (1630-1654)

• In February 1630, the Dutch fleet conquered Olinda and then captured Recife in March.
• With the victory, the invaders were strengthened by an additional 6,000 men sent from Europe.
• The WIC began trafficking slaves from Africa to Brazil.
• The resistance, led by Matias de Albuquerque, was concentrated in Arraial do Bom Jesus, on the outskirts of Recife.
• The Dutch were expelled in 1654.

The Dutch incursion was the longest and most serious challenge to Portuguese control by a major maritime power. The struggle to drive out the Dutch had devastating effects on the sugar plantations and sugar mills. The Dutch worked to build good relations with the Portuguese planters in the interior, supplying them with credit, slaves, merchandise, and access to European markets.

Aftermath

The Dutch surrender in Brazil, or the Capitulation of Campo do Taborda, was signed on 26 January 1654. On 6 August 1661, the Netherlands formally ceded the region to the Portuguese Empire through the Treaty of The Hague.

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