A Turbulent Century: Bolivia's 1700-1800 Story

The 18th century in Bolivia, then known as Upper Peru, was marked by the decline of the mining industry and the weakening of Spanish colonial rule. In the early 1700s, only small amounts of bullion were being shipped from Upper Peru to Spain. In the mid-1700s, the Spanish began to lose their grip on South America, and in 1780, an Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru II, led a revolt of nearly 60,000 natives against the Spanish near the Peruvian city of Cuzco. The Spanish suppressed the revolt in 1783 and executed thousands of natives, but the uprising highlighted the fragile nature of colonial rule in the Andes.

In the late 1700s, discontent with Spanish rule grew among the criollos (persons of pure Spanish descent born in the New World), who began to assume active roles in the economy, especially in mining and agricultural production. The ideas of the Enlightenment also contributed to criollo discontent, and in 1808, a local power struggle began. Pedro Domingo Murillo proclaimed an independent state in Upper Peru in the name of King Ferdinand VII. Between 1809 and 1816, Upper Peru became a battleground between the forces of the independent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and royalist troops from the Viceroyalty of Peru.

In 1820, conflict emerged in Upper Peru between loyalists, rebels led by Simón Bolívar, and Conservative Party criollos led by General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, who refused to join either side. Bolívar's victory over royal troops at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, followed by the assassination of Olañeta by his own men in 1825, marked the end of Spanish rule in Upper Peru. On 6 August 1825, a constitutional congress declared the region an independent republic, naming it Bolivia after Simón Bolívar.

The mining industry entered a period of decline

The mining industry in Bolivia entered a period of decline in the early 18th century. This was evidenced by the eclipsing of Potosí, the mining centre with the largest concentration of silver in the Western world, by La Paz. After 1700, only small amounts of bullion were shipped from Upper Peru to Spain.

The decline of the mining industry was caused by a number of factors. Firstly, the richest and most accessible veins of silver in Potosí were exhausted, requiring deeper and more expensive shafts to be built. Secondly, the rapid decrease of the indigenous population due to diseases introduced by the Spanish and their exploitation through the mita system of forced labour resulted in a labour shortage. This was exacerbated by the breakdown of native culture and the increase in alcoholism and coca leaf use among the indigenous population.

The attempts by the Spanish crown to revive the mining sector in Upper Peru in the mid-18th century were only partially successful and could not prevent the economic collapse of Potosí at the beginning of the 19th century. However, mining remained critical to the economy of Upper Peru as agricultural production in the region was low, and food supplies sent from the valleys to mining centres on the Altiplano influenced agricultural output.

Upper Peru joined the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata

Upper Peru, known as Charcas, was initially a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1776, it was transferred to the newly established Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, with its capital in Buenos Aires. This transfer was influenced by the wealth of Upper Peru and its remoteness from Lima, which had previously administered the region. The creation of the new viceroyalty was part of an administrative reform by the Spanish crown to increase revenues and eliminate abuses.

The Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata was ruled by a viceroy, who was aided by an audiencia (council). The audiencia served as the highest court of appeal in the jurisdiction and also held administrative and executive powers in the absence of the viceroy. The authority of the viceroy and the audiencia extended over a large area, including present-day Argentina, Uruguay, and parts of Brazil and Paraguay, in addition to Upper Peru.

The transfer of Upper Peru to the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata brought it under the direct influence of Buenos Aires, which was now the administrative centre of the region. This change in administration may have had an impact on the governance, economic policies, and social dynamics of Upper Peru. However, it is important to note that the region still remained under the broader control of the Spanish Empire, with the viceroy and audiencia acting as representatives of the Spanish monarch.

Upper Peru's inclusion in the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata was a significant development in the region's history, as it marked a shift in administrative and political structures. It is worth noting that this transfer occurred during a period of decline in Upper Peru's mining industry, which had been a major economic driver for the region. The decline in mining, coupled with increasing native resistance and the weakening of Spanish control, set the stage for the region's eventual move towards independence in the early 19th century.

Upper Peru's joining of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata was a result of both the region's strategic importance and the Spanish crown's efforts to streamline administration and increase control. This transfer had political, economic, and social implications for the region and set the stage for future developments that would shape the history of what is now Bolivia.

The mita system of forced labour was introduced

The mita was a pre-Columbian practice that was revived by the Spanish to address the labour shortage in the mid-16th century. The native population was decimated by European diseases, and the rich surface deposits in Potosí had been depleted, requiring more labour to extract silver. The mita system ensured a steady supply of forced labour for the mines, with relatively free men working alongside those who were coerced.

The mita system had a significant impact on the native population, contributing to the rapid decline in the Indian population. It also disrupted local Indian cultures and led to increased alcoholism and coca leaf consumption among the Indians. The Indians' resentment of the mita fuelled numerous rebellions and revolts throughout the colonial period, including the great rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in the late 18th century.

The mita system was a key factor in the economic development of colonial Upper Peru, as the labour it provided allowed for increased silver production in Potosí. However, it also had devastating consequences for the native population, exacerbating social and economic inequalities and fuelling resistance against Spanish colonial rule.

Upper Peru became a battleground for independence fighters and royalist troops

In the early 18th century, the mining industry in Upper Peru entered a prolonged period of decline. However, it was in the mid-18th century that Spanish control over South America began to weaken. In 1780, an Inca descendant, Túpac Amaru II, led a revolt against the Spaniards near the Peruvian city of Cuzco. Although Spain put down the revolt in 1783 and executed thousands of natives as punishment, the uprising demonstrated the fragile nature of Spanish colonial rule in the Andes.

In the late 18th century, a growing discontent with Spanish rule emerged among the criollos, who began to take on more active roles in the economy, particularly in mining and agricultural production. The Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, individualism, and questioning of authority, also contributed to criollo discontent.

The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by Napoleon Bonaparte's forces between 1807 and 1808 proved critical to the independence struggle in South America. The overthrow of the Bourbon Dynasty and the installation of Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne tested the loyalty of local elites in Upper Peru. Most remained loyal to the Spanish Bourbons, supporting the Junta Central, a government ruling in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII.

This conflict of authority resulted in a local power struggle in Upper Peru between 1808 and 1810, constituting the first phase of the fight for independence. Pedro Domingo Murillo led a revolt by criollos and mestizos in La Paz in 1809, proclaiming an independent state in Upper Peru in the name of King Ferdinand VII. By November 1809, Cochabamba, Oruro, and Potosí had joined Murillo's cause. Although the revolt was suppressed by royalist forces, Upper Peru was never again entirely controlled by Spain.

In the following seven years, Upper Peru became a battleground for independence fighters and royalist troops. The region witnessed clashes between the forces of the independent United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and royalist troops from the Viceroyalty of Peru. While the royalists repulsed several Argentine invasions, guerrillas controlled large parts of the countryside, establishing six significant republiquetas, or zones of insurrection. By 1817, Upper Peru was relatively calm and under the control of Lima.

After 1820, conservative criollos supported General Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, a Charcas native who refused to accept the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. Olañeta, convinced that these measures threatened royal authority, refused to join either the liberal royalist forces or the rebel armies led by Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre. Olañeta continued his resistance until his men killed him on April 1, 1825.

On August 6, 1825, the assembly adopted the Bolivian Declaration of Independence, naming the new nation after Simón Bolívar. Simón Bolívar entered La Paz triumphantly on August 8, 1825, and issued decrees reflecting his ideas about governance. However, he had doubts about the ability of Bolivians to govern themselves and was careful to avoid recognizing Bolivia's independence. It was not until January 1826, when Bolívar turned the country over to Sucre, that he promised the Peruvian legislature would approve Bolivia's independence.

The great rebellion of Túpac Amaru II

In the 18th century, resentment among the native population of Bolivia grew as Spain demanded higher tribute payments and increased mita obligations to increase mining output. This sparked the great rebellion of Túpac Amaru II, an educated, Spanish-speaking native who took the name of his ancestor, Túpac Amaru.

Born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, Túpac Amaru II led an uprising in November 1780, seizing and executing a particularly cruel corregidor de indios. Although he insisted that his movement was reformist and did not seek to overthrow Spanish rule, his demands included an autonomous region for natives. The uprising quickly became a full-scale revolt, with approximately 60,000 natives in the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes rallying to the cause. After some initial victories, including defeating a Spanish army of 1,200 men, Túpac Amaru II was captured and executed in May 1781. Nonetheless, the revolt continued, primarily in Upper Peru.

There, a supporter of Túpac Amaru II, the native chief Tomás Catari, had led an uprising in Potosí during the early months of 1780. Catari was killed by the Spaniards a month before Túpac Amaru II. Another major revolt was led by Julián Apaza, a sexton who took the names of the two rebel martyrs, calling himself Túpac Catari (also spelled Katari). He besieged La Paz for more than 100 days in 1781; 20,000 people died during the siege. In 1782, an Aymara woman, Bartolina Sisa, was executed for raising yet another revolt. Spain did not succeed in putting down all of the revolts until 1783 and then proceeded to execute thousands of natives.

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