The Croatian Plight: Were They Slaves To Austria?

The Kingdom of Croatia was part of the Lands of the Hungarian Crown but was under direct Imperial Austrian rule for significant periods, including its final years. It was also a part of the lands of the Habsburg monarchy from 1527, following the Election in Cetin, and the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867. The Kingdom of Croatia had large territorial losses in wars with the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Until the 18th century, the kingdom included only a small north-western part of present-day Croatia around Zagreb, and a small strip of coastland around Rijeka, that were not part of the Ottoman Empire or part of the Croatian Military Frontier.

The Croats were never slaves to the Austrian Empire. In fact, the Croats were one of the crown lands that supported Emperor Charles's Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and supported Empress Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian Succession of 1741–48. The empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several reforms in the administrative control of the Military Frontier, the feudal and tax system. In 1767 she founded the Croatian Royal Council as royal government of Croatia and Slavonia, with its seat in Varaždin, later in Zagreb, presided by the ban, but it was abolished in 1779 when Croatia was relegated to just one seat in the governing council of Hungary.

The Kingdom of Croatia and its territories

The Kingdom of Croatia, also known as the Croatian Kingdom, was a medieval kingdom in Southern Europe. It comprised most of what is today Croatia (without western Istria, some Dalmatian coastal cities, and the part of Dalmatia south of the Neretva River), as well as most of the modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Kingdom of Croatia was ruled for part of its existence by ethnic dynasties, and the Kingdom existed as a sovereign state for nearly two centuries. Its existence was characterised by various conflicts and periods of peace or alliance with the Bulgarians, Byzantines, Hungarians, and competition with Venice for control over the eastern Adriatic coast.

The first official name of the country was "Kingdom of the Croats" (Latin: Regnum Croatorum; Croatian: Kraljevstvo Hrvata), but over time, the name Kingdom of Croatia (Regnum Croatiae; Kraljevina Hrvatska) prevailed. From 1060, when Peter Krešimir IV gained control over the coastal cities of the Theme of Dalmatia, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, the official and diplomatic name of the kingdom was "Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia" (Regnum Croatiae et Dalmatiae; Kraljevina Hrvatska i Dalmacija).

The Kingdom of Croatia was ruled mostly by the Trpimirović dynasty until 1091. At that point, the realm experienced a succession crisis, and after a decade of conflicts for the throne, the crown passed to the Árpád dynasty with the coronation of King Coloman of Hungary as "King of Croatia and Dalmatia" in 1102, uniting the two kingdoms under one crown.

During the reign of Krešimir IV (1058-1074), the medieval Croatian kingdom reached its territorial peak. Krešimir managed to get the Byzantine Empire to confirm him as the supreme ruler of the Dalmatian cities, and Croatia under Krešimir IV was composed of twelve counties and was slightly larger than in Tomislav's time. It included the closest southern Dalmatian duchy of Pagania, and its influence extended over Zahumlje, Travunia, and Duklja.

In the union with Hungary, institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained through the Sabor (an assembly of Croatian nobles) and the ban (viceroy). In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles. Coloman retained the institution of the Sabor and relieved the Croatians of taxes on their land. Coloman's successors continued to crown themselves as Kings of Croatia separately in Biograd na Moru.

The Kingdom of Croatia had large territorial losses in wars with the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Until the 18th century, the kingdom included only a small north-western part of present-day Croatia around Zagreb and a small strip of coastland around Rijeka, that were not part of the Ottoman Empire or part of the Croatian Military Frontier. Between 1744 and 1868, the Kingdom of Croatia included a subordinate autonomous kingdom, the Kingdom of Slavonia. The territory of the Slavonian kingdom was recovered from the Ottoman Empire and was subsequently part of the Military Frontier for a short period. In 1744, these territories were organised as the Kingdom of Slavonia and included within the Kingdom of Croatia as an autonomous part. In 1868, they were merged into the newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.

The Ottoman Empire's expansion and wars with Croatia

The Ottoman Empire's expansion into Europe posed a significant threat to the Kingdom of Croatia, leading to a series of conflicts collectively known as the Croatian-Ottoman Wars. These wars spanned centuries and resulted in significant territorial losses for Croatia, shaping its history and the broader geopolitical landscape of the region. Here is an overview of the Ottoman Empire's expansion and its wars with Croatia:

The Ottoman Empire's Expansion and Conflict with Croatia:

• The Long Campaign (1443-1444): Led by King Vladislaus II of Hungary, this campaign was part of a broader conflict known as the Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War.
• The Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War: This prolonged conflict, also known as the "War for Croatia," consisted of near-constant, low-intensity warfare from the Battle of Krbava Field in 1493 to the Battle of Sisak in 1593. It included periods of borderland skirmishes and major Ottoman conquest campaigns, particularly during the 16th century.
• The Long War (1593-1606): Following the decisive Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Sisak, the Long War erupted and lasted until the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606. This conflict saw the involvement of various European powers and resulted in a relatively stable border between the Ottoman Empire and Croatia during the 17th century.
• The Great Turkish War (1683-1699): The Ottoman Empire's expansionist ambitions led to their attempt to capture Vienna in 1683. This triggered the Great Turkish War, which ended with the Peace of Karlowitz in 1699, confirming the liberation of Slavonia from Ottoman rule.
• The Austro-Turkish Wars: There were several Austro-Turkish Wars during the 17th and 18th centuries, including the Austro-Turkish War of 1663-1664 and the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-1718. These conflicts reflected the ongoing tensions and territorial disputes between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire.
• The Impact on Croatia: The Ottoman Empire's expansion resulted in significant territorial losses for Croatia, reducing it to what was known as the "Remnants of the Remnants" by the 16th century. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its identity, religion, and culture under Habsburg rule, but the constant warfare had devastating consequences for its people and economy.
• The Military Frontier: To counter the Ottoman threat, a Military Frontier was established, directly ruled from Vienna's military headquarters. This buffer zone included parts of Croatia and Slavonia, encouraging the settlement of various ethnic groups to defend against Ottoman incursions.
• Croatian Resistance and Notable Battles: Croatian nobility and military forces led numerous counterattacks and defensive campaigns. Notable battles include the Battle of Una in 1483, the Battle of Krbava Field in 1493, the Battle of Gorjani in 1537, and the Third Battle of Sisak in 1593, which marked a turning point in the conflict.
• The End of Ottoman Rule: The Ottoman Empire's influence in the region gradually declined, and by the 19th century, they had lost control of most Croatian territories. However, some areas, such as Turkish Croatia (western Bosnia and Herzegovina), remained under Ottoman rule until the 19th century.
• Croatian National Revival: In the 19th century, Croatian romantic nationalism emerged to counteract the Germanization and Magyarization of Croatian territories. This period saw the Illyrian movement, which advanced the Croatian language and culture, and played a crucial role in shaping Croatian national identity.

The Military Frontier and its impact on Croatian demographics

The Military Frontier was a borderland of the Habsburg monarchy and later the Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was a territory in the Habsburg Monarchy, including the Austrian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. It was founded in the late 16th century out of lands of the Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and was initially a nominal part of that Kingdom. It was located on the border with the Ottoman Empire.

The Military Frontier was ruled directly from Vienna's military headquarters and was exempt from serfdom. In exchange for land grants, religious freedom, and favourable tax rates, the inhabitants of the area, known as the Grenzer (or frontiersmen), colonized the area and served as the bulwark for the monarchy against Ottoman incursions. The majority of the population was Croatian and Serbian, with other colonists including Germans, Vlachs, and Hungarians.

The territory of the Military Frontier was initially subdivided into the Slavonian Frontier (subsequently known as the Varaždin Generalate), the Croatian Frontier (subsequently known as the Karlovac Generalate), and the Žumberak District. The Croatian Military Frontier included three sections: the Varaždin Borderland (Bilogora and Podravina), the Karlovac Borderland (Lika and Kordun), and the Zagreb Borderland (Banovina).

The impact of the Military Frontier on Croatian demographics was significant. The area was settled primarily by Croatian, Serbian, and German colonists, with the majority of immigrants being Serbs. The Military Frontier offered freedom of religion, and by the 18th and 19th centuries, the population was a mix of Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Greek Catholics, and Protestants.

The Military Frontier ceased to exist as a political entity in the late 19th century, and in 1881, it was abolished and incorporated into the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.

Croatian national revival and the Illyrian movement

The Croatian national revival and the Illyrian movement were a response to the Austro-Hungarian Empire's attempts at Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia. The movement was initiated by a group of young Croatian intellectuals in the first half of the 19th century, specifically from 1835 to 1849 or 1863 (with some sources citing 1870 as the end date). The Illyrian movement was a pan-South-Slavic cultural and political campaign that aimed to create a Croatian national establishment in Austria-Hungary through linguistic and ethnic unity.

The Illyrian movement was heavily influenced by the 1700 publication *Croatia Rediviva*. In the early 1830s, a group of young Croatian writers, initially led by Ljudevit Gaj, gathered in Zagreb and established a movement for national renewal and unity of all South Slavs within the Habsburg Monarchy. Count Janko Drašković published a pamphlet in 1832, which later became the political, economic, social, and cultural program of the movement. It promoted the native language as official, more autonomy from the central government, and better education and enlightenment for the common people.

The greatest issue for the Illyrians was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian and the promotion of Croatian written literature and official culture. They envisioned a single literary language and orthography to serve as a means of cultural and national unification, paving the way for a general national revival. In 1830, Ljudevit Gaj published a work on Croatian-Slavic orthography, which was the first linguistic work published during the movement. He proposed a reform of the Illyrian alphabet, including the introduction of diacritics.

The Illyrian movement was successful in its cultural goals, forming the basis for a common Serbo-Croatian language. However, it failed in its ultimate goal of creating an "Illyrian state" as increasing Croatian nationalism shifted towards pan-Slavic ideals. The movement ceased to exist due to the Revolutions of 1848, and in 1849, Emperor Francis Joseph imposed a new constitution, censoring all political dissent.

Croatia in Austria-Hungary

Croatia was part of the Kingdom of Croatia, which was part of the Lands of the Hungarian Crown. However, it was subject to direct Imperial Austrian rule for significant periods of time, including its final years. The Kingdom of Croatia was part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1527, following the Election in Cetin, and the Austrian Empire from 1804 to 1867.

The Kingdom of Croatia suffered large territorial losses in wars with the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Until the 18th century, the kingdom included only a small north-western part of present-day Croatia around Zagreb, and a small strip of coastland around Rijeka, that were not part of the Ottoman Empire or part of the Croatian Military Frontier.

In 1527, following the fall of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács, Croatian and Hungarian nobles convened the Croatian Parliament in Cetin and chose to join the Habsburg monarchy under the Austrian king Ferdinand I of Habsburg.

In 1553 and 1578, large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire were carved out into the Military Frontier, ruled directly from Vienna's military headquarters. This area was settled by Serbs, Germans, Hungarians, and other Slavs.

In 1744, territories recovered from the Ottoman Empire were organised as the Kingdom of Slavonia, included within the Kingdom of Croatia as an autonomous part. In 1868, they were merged into the newly formed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.

In 1804, the Habsburg monarchy became the Austrian Empire, which annexed the Venetian Republic in 1814 and established the Kingdom of Dalmatia. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Slavonia were joined to create the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within the Hungarian part of the empire, while the Kingdom of Dalmatia remained a crown land in the Austrian part of the empire.

In the 19th century, Croatian romantic nationalism emerged to counteract the non-violent but apparent Germanization and Magyarization. The Croatian national revival began in the 1830s with the Illyrian movement, led by Ljudevit Gaj, which reformed and standardised Croatian.

In the revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, the Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić cooperated with the Austrians in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Despite this contribution, Croatia was later subject to Hungarian hegemony when the Austrian Empire was transformed into a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867.

In 1868, the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement was negotiated, combining Croatia and Slavonia into the autonomous Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia. However, the governor (ban) was appointed by Hungary, and Croatia lost authority over the sea port of Rijeka.

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