France's War: Victory Or Defeat?

The War of the First Coalition (1792-1797) was the first attempt by the European monarchies to defeat the French First Republic. France declared war on the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in April 1792, and the Kingdom of Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later. This was followed by a series of sweeping military conflicts resulting from the French Revolution that lasted until 1802, pitting France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and several other countries.

In 1794, the situation improved dramatically for the French as huge victories at Fleurus against the Austrians and Dutch, and at the Black Mountain against the Spanish, signaled the start of a new stage in the wars. By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. The French also put Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel.

Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon destroyed the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching toward Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.

The War of the First Coalition ended with a French victory, and the First Republic was declared.

France's declaration of war on Austria and Prussia

The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was watched with a mixture of scorn, excitement, and fear by the crowned rulers of Europe. Initially, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, who was the brother of Marie Antoinette, looked on the Revolution calmly and with sympathy. However, as the Revolution became more radical, Leopold's view changed. In July 1791, Leopold instigated the Padua Circular, an open letter to the leaders of Prussia, England, Spain, Russia, Sweden, and other nations. This letter called for a European military coalition to invade France, halt the revolution, and reinstall the monarchy. This was followed by the Declaration of Pillnitz, a joint statement by Leopold and Frederick William II, King of Prussia, which threatened severe consequences if anything should happen to Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette.

In March 1792, Leopold II died, and the Austrian throne passed to his 24-year-old son. The Girondin ministry, a pro-war faction, seized the moment and began preparing and agitating for war. On April 20, 1792, Louis XVI attended a session of the Legislative Assembly and sat through speeches calling for a preemptive war. The king then rose and formally declared war against Austria and Emperor Francis II, the nephew of his wife. Prussia, having allied with Austria in February, declared war on France in June 1792.

The French plunge into war was initially disastrous, largely due to the revolution's impact on the nation's armed forces, which had become weakened and disorganized. Experienced officers had fled the country or abandoned the military, and the remaining officers struggled to restore discipline with harsh punishments. In late April 1792, General Charles Dumouriez hastily organized an offensive against Austrian-controlled Belgium, which ended in disaster, with French revolutionary troops fleeing the battlefield and murdering one of their generals. By the start of summer, a combined force of Austrians, Prussians, Hessian mercenaries, and émigrés was gathering along the Rhine, preparing to invade France. On July 25, the Prussian commander, the Duke of Brunswick, issued a manifesto threatening Paris with destruction. On September 2, the Allies crossed the French border, overran Longwy and Verdun, and prepared to march on Paris.

On September 20, a French force of over 30,000 men engaged the invaders at Valmy, halfway between Paris and the border. The French outmaneuvered and outfought Brunswick's coalition force, which began retreating from French territory the following day. Within two weeks, the Allied army had withdrawn, and the revolution appeared to have been saved. This victory at Valmy marked a turning point in French military fortunes, and the Legislative Assembly proclaimed the French Republic two days later, on September 22.

The War of the First Coalition

The First Coalition was made up of several European powers, including Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Spain, and several others. The coalition sought to contain and defeat Revolutionary France, which had been experiencing radical political upheaval since 1789. The French revolutionaries, fearing military intervention by neighbouring monarchies, struck first, declaring war on Austria on the 20th of April, 1792.

The war was not confined to France and Austria, however, as Prussia, having allied with Austria in February 1792, declared war on France in June of that year. In July, an army composed mostly of Prussians and led by the Duke of Brunswick, joined the Austrian side and invaded France. This invasion triggered the September massacres in Paris, and France counterattacked, winning the Battle of Valmy in September 1792. This victory gave a significant boost to French morale, and the Prussians, facing a longer and more costly campaign than expected, decided to retreat and preserve their army.

The French were also successful on other fronts, occupying territories in Savoy, Nice, and along the Rhine. In January 1793, the French government executed King Louis XVI, which united all European governments against the Revolution. France responded by declaring war on Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain. The Holy Roman Empire, Portugal, Naples, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also joined the anti-French coalition.

The French introduced mass conscription, deploying far more soldiers than the other states, and remaining on the offensive. The French armies counterattacked, pushing back the Allied armies and advancing beyond their own borders. The French established the Batavian Republic as a sister republic and gained control of territories in Belgium, the Rhineland, and Northern Italy.

The First Coalition gradually unravelled, with Prussia withdrawing in 1794 and Spain and Prussia making peace with France in 1795. By October 1797, only Britain remained at war with France, and the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed, ending the War of the First Coalition.

The Prussian advantage

Military Strategy and Technology

Prussia's military strategy and technology were more advanced than those of France. The Prussian army was controlled by the General Staff, led by General Helmuth von Moltke, who utilised new technology such as railways and telegraphs to coordinate and accelerate troop mobilisation effectively. Moltke's strategic planning and efficient mobilisation gave Prussia a significant advantage over France.

Speed of Mobilisation and Concentration

The Prussian army's speed of mobilisation and concentration was superior to that of France. The Prussian army was locally based, with reservists living close to regimental depots, enabling swift mobilisation. In contrast, Austrian conscripts often faced lengthy journeys to report to their units, resulting in a slower mobilisation process. Additionally, the Prussian railway system was more extensive and efficient, allowing for quicker troop movement and concentration.

Training and Discipline

The Prussian army had better training and discipline than the French forces. Prussian conscript service involved continuous training and drill, while the Austrian army often dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave, requiring retraining upon recall. The Prussian infantry was also equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a bolt-action rifle that could be rapidly loaded, giving them an advantage in combat.

Leadership and Coordination

The Prussian army benefited from strong leadership and effective coordination. King William I of Prussia led the army nominally, but the real mastermind was Helmuth von Moltke, the Chief of the General Staff. Moltke meticulously planned the war campaigns, ensuring the Prussian armies' convergence and timely arrival at decisive battles.

Alliance Formation

Prussia was successful in forming strategic alliances, particularly with the Kingdom of Italy, which committed to the war against Austria if it occurred within three months. This alliance diverted Austrian strength and contributed to Prussia's advantage.

Economic and Industrial Strength

Prussia's rapidly growing economy and industrial power provided an advantage in the war effort. Prussia could equip its armies with breech-loading rifles and advanced Krupp breech-loading artillery. In contrast, Austria's economy was suffering from the effects of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 and the Second Italian War of Independence, hindering its military capabilities.

Napoleon's role in the war

Napoleon Bonaparte played a significant role in the War of the First Coalition (1792-1797), which was the first attempt by the European monarchies to defeat the French First Republic. Although he did not enter the war as the leader of the French army until 1796, he played a major role in crushing the royalist rebellion at the 1793 Siege of Toulon, where he expelled an English fleet and secured the valuable French harbour. Promoted to general in 1795, Napoleon was sent to the battlefields of the French Revolutionary Wars to fight the Austro-Piedmontese armies in Northern Italy the following year.

Napoleon was successful in a daring invasion of Italy, a victory that contributed to Austria’s decision to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio, ceding Belgium to France and recognising French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy. The ancient Republic of Venice was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war.

Napoleon's invasion of Italy included the Montenotte Campaign, where he separated the armies of Sardinia and Austria, defeating each one in turn, and then forced a peace on Sardinia. His army then captured Milan and started the Siege of Mantua. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him while continuing the siege. In February, Napoleon finally captured Mantua, with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time, there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.

Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in October, ceding Belgium to France and recognising French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy. The ancient Republic of Venice was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war.

The Treaty of Campo Formio

The treaty was signed following Napoleon's victorious Italian campaign, which had forced the Habsburgs to agree to an armistice at Leoben in March 1797. The treaty ceded a number of Austrian territories to France, including the Austrian Netherlands (modern-day Belgium), and the Ionian Islands in the Adriatic Sea. In addition, the Republic of Venice was disbanded and partitioned between the two states.

The treaty also included secret articles, which agreed to extend the borders of France up to the Rhine, the Nette, and the Roer. It further guaranteed free French navigation on the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Moselle.

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