Austria-Hungary: A Nation's Name And History

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as Austria-Hungary, was a constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It was formed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which united the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two semi-independent states with a single monarch. This followed the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which resulted in the expulsion of Austria from the German Confederation. The empire was geographically the second-largest country in Europe and the third most populous, with 52 million people and 11 major ethno-linguistic groups. It was ruled by Emperor Franz Joseph, who was both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. While Hungary gained back its parliament and authority over most internal affairs, Franz Joseph retained control over defence, foreign policy, and other centralised aspects of political power.

Austria-Hungary: A Dual Monarchy

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It was formed by a compromise agreement between Vienna and Budapest, resulting in a union of two separate kingdoms: the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. This union was established after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which led to the expulsion of Austria from the German Confederation.

The Dual Monarchy was characterised by a complex and unusual political organisation due to its origins as two separate kingdoms. The emperor, first crowned as King of both Austria and Hungary, served as the head of state and government, with absolute power in theory. However, in practice, Emperor Franz Joseph ruled as a constitutional monarch, relying on the advice of his ministers. The two kingdoms retained a degree of autonomy, each with its own parliament, prime minister, cabinet, and domestic self-government.

The central government oversaw matters of foreign policy, military command, and joint finance. It was composed of the emperor, both prime ministers, three appointed ministers, members of the aristocracy, and representatives of the military. The Dual Monarchy's military force consisted of three armies: two belonging to the kingdoms of Austria and Hungary, and a newly created force called the Imperial and Royal Army.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a major European power, spanning almost 700,000 square kilometres and containing approximately 52 million people. It was the second-largest nation in Europe by territory and the third-largest by population. The empire encompassed a diverse mix of geography, people, languages, and cultures, with 11 major ethno-language groups, including Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croatians, Serbs, Italians, and Romanians.

The 19th century witnessed significant economic growth for the empire, marked by the development and expansion of capitalist institutions such as banking, industry, and manufacturing. The National Austro-Hungarian Bank played a crucial role in supplying credit and investment funds, fostering economic links between the two halves of the empire. The western half of the empire became a centre of manufacturing and industrial production, while the eastern half remained predominantly agricultural, producing most of the food for the Dual Monarchy.

Despite internal political and ethnic divisions, the Austro-Hungarian imperial army was relatively professional and well-equipped. However, language barriers posed challenges, as Austrian officers spoke German while the majority of soldiers were of other nationalities. To address this issue, enlisted soldiers were taught a set of 68 single-word commands to facilitate communication and functionality within the army.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The Kingdom of Hungary had long desired equal status with the Austrian Empire, and the Compromise of 1867 granted it full internal autonomy, with its own responsible ministry. In return, Hungary agreed that the empire should remain a single great state for purposes of war and foreign affairs, thus maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad. This agreement put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary instituted by Emperor Franz Joseph after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

Under the Compromise, the lands of the House of Habsburg were reorganized as a real union between Austria and Hungary. Each state had its own parliament and prime minister, but they conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies, with common ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance under the direct authority of the monarch. The Compromise restored the territorial integrity of Hungary and its old historic constitution, along with the reform laws of the Hungarian revolutionary parliament, known as the April Laws.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise was not universally popular, especially among ethnic Hungarians, who saw it as a betrayal of their interests and the achievements of the 1848 revolution. However, it was supported by ethnic minority voters in Hungary, and it helped maintain the unity of the dual monarchy until World War I.

The Two Capitals: Vienna and Budapest

Vienna and Budapest were the two capitals of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as the Dual Monarchy, which existed between 1867 and 1918. The empire was formed through the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which united the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary under a single monarch, Emperor Franz Joseph. The two capitals reflected the dual nature of the empire, with each city serving as the administrative and political centre for its respective half.

Vienna, the capital of the Austrian half of the empire, was referred to as "Cisleithania" and consisted of seventeen historical crown lands, including Bohemia, Galicia, and Dalmatia. The Austrian half was more diverse and heterogeneous, with a multinational state granting rights to various ethnic groups. Vienna's parliament building, located on the Ringstrasse, was a symbol of the Austrian capital's political and administrative functions.

Budapest, the capital of the Hungarian half, known as "Transleithania," included the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, and the free city of Rijeka/Fiume. While Magyars were the dominant ethnic group in Hungary, they only constituted a small majority (54.5% in 1910), and the region was characterised by its multi-ethnic composition. The Hungarian parliament building, located on the banks of the Danube, reflected the administrative and political importance of Budapest within the empire.

The two capitals, Vienna and Budapest, represented the dual nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with each city serving as the administrative and political centre for its respective half. The empire's unity was also personified by the monarch, Emperor Franz Joseph, who ruled over both Austria and Hungary.

The Austrian Half: 'Cisleithania'

Cisleithania, officially The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, was the northern and western part of Austria-Hungary, the Dual Monarchy created in the Compromise of 1867. The name Cisleithania comes from the Latin name for the Leitha River, a tributary of the Danube that formed the historical boundary between the Archduchy of Austria and the Hungarian Kingdom. The Cisleithanian capital was Vienna, the residence of the Austrian emperor.

Cisleithania was made up of 15 crown lands, which had representatives in the Imperial Council (Reichsrat), the Cisleithanian parliament in Vienna. The crown lands were not states, but provinces in the modern sense, with unique historic political and legal characteristics. Each crown land had a regional assembly, the Landtag, which enacted laws on matters of regional and mostly minor importance.

The largest group within Cisleithania were Austrian Germans (including Yiddish-speaking Jews), who made up around a third of the population. German-speakers and Czechs made up a majority of the population, and almost 60% of Cisleithania's population was ethnically Slavic.

Cisleithania had a population of 28,571,900 in 1910. It stretched from Vorarlberg in the west to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria and the Duchy of Bukovina in the east, and from the Kingdom of Bohemia in the north to the Kingdom of Dalmatia in the south. It comprised the current states of Austria (except Burgenland), as well as most of the territories of the Czech Republic and Slovenia, southern Poland, and parts of Italy, Croatia, Montenegro, Romania, and Ukraine.

The Austrian half of the Dual Monarchy was officially called the Empire of Austria, and it constituted the western and northern half of the former Austrian Empire. The Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Croatia, the Kingdom of Slavonia, and the Principality of Transylvania were no longer considered "Austrian" crown lands after 1867. Instead, they constituted an autonomous state, officially called the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen, and commonly known as Transleithania or Hungary.

The two halves of the empire were united by their common army and foreign policy, with the monarch personifying the unity of the empire. However, in all other state matters, Hungary was completely autonomous, with its own parliament and government in Budapest.

The Hungarian Half: 'Transleithania'

The Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, also known as Transleithania, was a constitutional monarchy. It was formed in 1867, following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, and lasted until the empire's collapse in 1918. Transleithania was made up of the Kingdom of Hungary, which included Hungary proper, the territories of the former Principality of Transylvania, and the former Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar. It also included the internally self-governed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the free port of Rijeka (Fiume).

Transleithania had its own parliament in Budapest, separate from the Reichsrat in Vienna, which governed the Austrian half of the empire (Cisleithania). The Hungarian parliament was bicameral, consisting of a House of Magnates and a House of Representatives. The House of Magnates was made up of princes of the royal house, hereditary peers, high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, representatives of the Protestant confessions, life peers, and state dignitaries. The House of Representatives was elected under the Electoral Law of 1874, with a complicated franchise based on property, taxation, profession, official position, and ancestral privileges.

The Hungarian government consisted of a prime minister and cabinet appointed by the emperor but responsible to the Diet of Hungary. The emperor, however, had limited power over the country's internal affairs, as the compromise granted Hungary full internal autonomy. Joint Austro-Hungarian affairs, such as foreign policy, defence, and finance, were managed through "common" ministries.

Transleithania had its own flag, which, along with the Croatian flag, was flown during joint Croatian-Hungarian parliamentary sessions. The official language of Transleithania was Magyar (Hungarian), but Croatian was recognised as the official language of Croatia's government, and Croatian representatives were permitted to use their language when discussing "common" affairs before the Hungarian diet.

The Nationalities Law of 1868 defined Hungary as a single Hungarian nation comprising different nationalities, with equal rights in all areas except language. Hungarian became the official language of the central government and universities, while non-Hungarian languages could be used in local government, churches, and schools. This led to discontent among minority groups, who wanted more autonomy.

The economy of Transleithania was largely agricultural, with Hungary being the world's second-largest flour exporter. However, the government also encouraged industrial development, and by 1910, the proportion of Hungarians employed in industry had doubled to 24.2%. The population of Transleithania rose from 13 million in 1850 to 20 million in 1910, with the peasantry making up the majority.

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