The Turks' Break From Austrian Rule

The Turks and Austrians have had a long history of conflict, with the two empires waging several wars against each other over control of Central Europe and the Balkans. The rivalry between the two powers dates back to the Middle Ages, with Austria and Turkey serving as the core regions of the larger Habsburg and Ottoman Empires, respectively. The Ottoman Empire posed a significant threat to Austrian territories, nearly conquering the Austrian capital of Vienna in 1529 and 1683. The two empires fought the Austro-Turkish War from 1788 to 1791, which resulted in minor territorial gains for the Habsburg monarchy. However, the war had detrimental effects on Austria's economy and progress toward a modern civil society. The conflict also contributed to a period of national decline for the Ottoman Empire.

The Austro-Turkish War of 1716-1718

The war began when the Ottoman Empire invaded Venetian-held Morea in Greece, violating the Treaty of Karlowitz and prompting the Austrians, as guarantors of the treaty, to threaten the Ottomans. The first engagement of the war took place on 2 August 1716 at the Battle of Karlowitz, resulting in an Ottoman victory. However, just three days later, Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated the Turks at the Battle of Petrovaradin.

In October 1716, Prince Eugene of Savoy conquered the Banat and its capital, Temesvár. The following year, the Austrians captured Belgrade, forcing the Turks to seek peace. The Treaty of Passarowitz was signed on 21 July 1718, ending the war.

As a result of the treaty, the Habsburgs gained control of Belgrade, Temesvár (the last Ottoman fortress in Hungary), the Banat region, and portions of northern Serbia. Wallachia ceded Oltenia to the Habsburgs, and the Turks were forced south of the Danube River. The Venetians were forced to surrender the Morea to the Ottomans but retained the Ionian Islands and made gains in Dalmatia.

The Habsburg-Ottoman War of 1788-1791

The Austrians entered the war in February 1788, but their best chance for an easy victory had already passed. The Austrians relied on Russian support in Moldavia, which only began in late 1788, and Joseph II seemed reluctant to fight the Ottomans. In July 1788, the Ottomans crossed the Danube and broke into the Austrian Banat. Both sides faced shortages of supplies, and the Austrian soldiers were struck by disease. As many as 50,000 Serb refugees fled across the Danube, causing logistical problems for the Austrians. In mid-August, Joseph II dispatched 20,400 soldiers into the Banat, and a Serbian Free Corps of 5,000 soldiers was established to fight for the liberation of Serbia and unification under Habsburg rule.

Later in the war, the balance shifted towards Austria. The Turks were expelled from parts of Croatia, the Banat, and parts of Bosnia, and Belgrade was taken in a three-week campaign by Field Marshal Laudon. Habsburg-occupied Serbia (1788-1791) was established, and the Austrian army also participated in the victories of Focşani and Rymnik under the overall command of Suvorov, and Josias of Saxe-Coburg conquered Bucharest.

The war had severe negative effects on the economy of Austria and derailed progress in creating a modern civil society. The national debt soared, food prices and taxes rose, and a new conscription was implemented, leading to bread riots in Vienna after the bad harvest of 1788/89. The morale of the cultural elite was severely eroded, and there were widespread feelings of disillusionment with Emperor Joseph.

The war ended with the Treaty of Sistova in 1791, with minor territorial changes in favour of the Habsburg side. Austria returned most of the territory gained during the war, keeping only the small town of Orsova and a strip of Croatian land near the Bosnian-Croatian border. The Habsburg-Ottoman War was the last direct conflict between the two powers, although political and military tensions remained.

The Eastern Question

The Napoleonic era brought some relief to the Ottoman Empire as it distracted Russia from further advances. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt and his alliance with Russia through the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 threatened the Ottoman Empire, but his defeat in 1815 and the subsequent Congress of Vienna failed to address the territorial integrity of the decaying empire. The Serbian Revolution, which resulted in Serbia's emancipation from the Ottoman Empire, further highlighted the complexities of the Eastern Question.

The Greek War of Independence, which began in 1821, brought the Eastern Question to the forefront once again. The European powers, particularly Russia, Britain, and Austria, were concerned about the potential collapse of the Ottoman Empire and engaged in a power struggle to safeguard their military, strategic, and commercial interests in the region. While Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary and Great Britain deemed its preservation as more favourable to their interests.

The Crimean War of the 1850s, fought between Russia and an alliance of Britain, France, and Turkey, was a significant development in the Eastern Question. The war centred around Tsar Nicholas I of Russia's plan to carve up the European part of Turkey, with Britain and France objecting to Russian expansionism. The war resulted in Russia's evacuation of the Danubian Principalities and the return of southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube to Turkey.

Turkish immigration to Austria

Turkish people in Austria, also known as Austrian Turks or Turkish Austrians, are people of Turkish ethnicity who live in Austria and constitute the country's largest ethnic minority group. They are descended primarily from the Republic of Turkey, but there has also been significant migration from other post-Ottoman countries, including the Balkans (especially Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Romania), the island of Cyprus, and more recently, Iraq and Syria.

The history of Turkish migration to Austria can be divided into two main phases: migration from the Republic of Turkey and migration from other post-Ottoman countries.

Migration from the Republic of Turkey

In 1964, the Austrian government signed an agreement with Turkey to recruit Turkish people as "Gastarbeiter" (guest workers) for the construction and export industries, marking the beginning of a significant migration flow. This agreement addressed the labour shortage in Austria caused by Austrians emigrating to neighbouring countries with higher wages. However, in 1973, the policy of encouraging guest workers ended, and restrictive immigration laws were introduced. The Aliens Employment Act of 1975 set quotas on work permits, and the Residence Act of 1992 imposed quotas on residency permits without the right to work. Further restrictions were implemented in 1997 and 2006.

Since the 1970s, Turks in Austria have focused on family reunification and obtaining Austrian citizenship, which requires a minimum of ten years of residence in the country.

Migration from Other Post-Ottoman Countries

Turkish migration to Austria has also occurred from several post-Ottoman countries, particularly in the Balkans and, more recently, the Levant.

The Balkans

Turkish Bulgarians began migrating to Austria in significant numbers in the late 1980s to escape assimilation policies, including forced name changes, the banning of the Turkish language, and ethnic cleansing. The collapse of the totalitarian regime in Bulgaria in 1989 further facilitated labour migration to Western Europe, including Austria. Bulgaria's accession to the European Union in 2007 also influenced the migration patterns of Turkish Bulgarians, who could now exercise their freedom of movement rights as EU citizens.

The Turkish minority in Western Thrace, Greece, has also experienced mass migration to Austria since the 1960s due to political and economic factors. However, many were forced to remain in Austria and other Western European countries due to the Greek government's use of Article 19 of the 1955 Greek Constitution, which allowed them to strip members of the Turkish minority living abroad of their Greek citizenship.

Turkish Macedonians and Kosovars also migrated to Austria as "guest workers" in the 1960s and 1970s, later bringing their family members to join them.

The Levant

Turkish Cypriots have migrated to Austria primarily due to economic and political reasons. The majority arrived after 1974, following a coup d'état by the Greek military junta and a subsequent Turkish invasion of the island. With Cyprus' accession to the European Union in 2004, Turkish Cypriots gained freedom of movement rights, further facilitating their migration to Austria.

Additionally, thousands of Syrian Turks and other minority groups from Syria fled to Austria during the European migrant crisis of 2014–2019 as refugees from the Syrian Civil War.

Demographics and Social Impact

Estimates of the Turkish population in Austria vary, ranging from 360,000 to 500,000 people. They are dispersed throughout major cities like Vienna and Salzburg, as well as smaller towns like Telfs, where they form a significant proportion of the population.

In terms of political preferences, the Social Austria of the Future (SÖZ) party has gained notable support among Turkish immigrants, with 20% of voters of Turkish immigrant background choosing this party in the 2020 Viennese state election.

Turkey's accession to the EU

Turkey's path to EU membership has been hampered by several factors, including:

• Human rights violations and rule of law concerns.
• The strong presidency created by the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum, which the EU claims would violate the Copenhagen criteria for membership.
• The issue of Cyprus, with Turkey refusing to recognise the Republic of Cyprus and normalise relations.
• Concerns about the impact of Turkey's large population on the balance of power in European institutions, particularly in the European Parliament.
• Cultural differences between Muslim-majority Turkey and predominantly Christian Europe.
• Turkey's refusal to recognise the Armenian genocide.

Despite these challenges, Turkey's accession to the EU would have several potential benefits, including:

• Contributing to peace and stability in the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
• Strengthening economic ties and increasing foreign investment in Turkey.
• Providing opportunities for Turkish citizens to migrate to other parts of Europe for work or a higher standard of living.
• Spreading secular western values in Turkey and contributing to the growth and acceptance of Islam in Europe.
• Stimulating Turkey's political and legal reforms and intensifying the democratisation process.

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