Austria-Hungary's Land Concession: Italy's Territorial Gain

The question of whether Austria-Hungary gave land to Italy is complex and deeply rooted in the history of the two nations. In the mid-19th century, the region between the Alps and the Adriatic Sea witnessed intense commercial and migratory activities, with people and goods moving both within the Austrian Empire and towards the rest of Europe. The Italian wars of unification disrupted this dynamic by creating a border between the nation-state of Italy and the multicultural empire of Austria-Hungary. This border divided Friuli, a region with its own cultural and geographical unity, leaving Italian speakers in Austria-Hungary and transforming everyday cross-border movements.

During the immediate pre-World War I years, Italy, which was a partner in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, started aligning itself with the Entente powers, namely France and Great Britain. On April 26, 1915, Italy negotiated the secret Pact of London, where the Entente powers promised to support Italy's annexation of frontier lands, including Trentino, Trieste, and South Tyrol, in exchange for entering the war against Austria-Hungary. As a result, Italy left the Triple Alliance and declared war on Austria-Hungary on May 23, 1915, marking the beginning of the Italian Front of World War I.

The Italian campaign against Austria-Hungary was marked by a series of persistent offensives, known as the Battles of the Isonzo, which resulted in heavy casualties and little territorial gain. Despite Italy's eventual victory and the capture of Trento and Trieste, the question of whether Austria-Hungary gave land to Italy is more nuanced. The Treaty of London and Italy's military campaigns aimed to annex territories along the border, but the peace negotiations and treaties that followed, such as the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, shaped the final territorial outcomes.

Italy's motivations for entering WWI

When World War I broke out in July 1914, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, Italy chose to remain neutral, despite its alliance with the Central Powers. There were several motivations behind Italy's eventual entry into the war on the side of the Allies.

Enmity with Austria-Hungary

One of the primary reasons Italy chose to join the war was its historical enmity with Austria-Hungary, which was Germany's main ally. Italy sought to annex territories along the frontier with Austria-Hungary, including the Trentino region in the Alps and Trieste on the Adriatic Sea. This would "liberate" Italian-speaking populations from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and unite them with their cultural homeland.

Alliances and Support

In the years leading up to the war, Italy began to align itself more closely with the Entente powers, particularly France and Great Britain, seeking military and economic support. On April 26, 1915, Italy negotiated the secret Pact of London, in which Britain and France promised to support Italy's annexation of the frontier lands in exchange for entering the war on the Entente side. This agreement provided Italy with assurances and incentives to join the war.

Territorial Ambitions

Italy had territorial ambitions beyond the frontier with Austria-Hungary. Through the Treaty of London, the Allies promised Italy additional territories, including parts of Dalmatia, islands along the Austrian Adriatic coast, the Albanian port city of Vlore, and territory from the Ottoman Empire. The prospect of gaining these territories was a significant motivation for Italy's entry into the war.

Domestic Sentiment

There was also a strong sentiment within the Italian general population and political factions to go to war against Austria-Hungary. This sentiment influenced Italy's decision to abandon its neutrality and actively join the conflict.

The Pact of London

The pact promised Italy substantial amounts of land in Europe, Asia, and Africa in return for opening a front in the Alps against Austria-Hungary. Specifically, Italy was promised territory along its border with Austria, including Trieste, South Tyrol, and northern Dalmatia. The pact also included promises of land to Serbia and Montenegro to help offset Bulgaria's entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers.

On May 3, 1915, Italy resigned from the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italy's entrance into the war was opposed by most Italians, who favoured neutrality.

Italy's war declaration on Austria-Hungary

On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, entering World War I on the side of the Allies (Britain, France, and Russia). This declaration opened up a new front in World War I, stretching 600 kilometers—most of them mountainous—along Italy’s border with Austria-Hungary.

When World War I broke out in July 1914, Italy was a partner in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary but decided to remain neutral. However, there was a strong sentiment within Italy to go to war against Austria-Hungary, its historical enemy. Italy's primary goal was to annex territory along the two countries' frontier, stretching from the Trentino region in the Alps to Trieste on the Adriatic Sea, thus "liberating" Italian-speaking populations from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the pre-war years, Italy started aligning itself with the Entente powers, France and Great Britain, for military and economic support.

On April 26, 1915, Italy negotiated the secret Pact of London, by which Great Britain and France promised to support Italy's annexation of the frontier lands in return for entering the war on the Entente side. On May 3, Italy resigned from the Triple Alliance and later declared war against Austria-Hungary at midnight on May 23.

At the beginning of the war, the Italian army had less than 300,000 men, but mobilization increased its size to more than 5 million by the war’s end in November 1918. Italy faced several challenges in the war, including insufficient equipment for its troops and the difficult terrain of the Italian front, which included the treacherous and snowy conditions in the South Tyrol region. By late 1917, the Italians and Austrians had fought no fewer than 11 battles along the Isonzo River, with heavy losses on both sides and little progress.

In late October 1917, German intervention to help Austria-Hungary resulted in a spectacular victory over the Italians in the Battle of Caporetto, during which Italian forces suffered some 300,000 casualties and were forced to retreat. This defeat sparked a crisis in Italy, leading to the dismissal of the army’s chief of staff, Luigi Cadorna, and the formation of a coalition government under Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. After Caporetto, Italy received increased assistance from its allies, as British, French, and American troops arrived in the region, and the Allies began to regain the initiative.

By the time fighting ended on the Italian front on November 4, 1918, 615,000 Italians had been killed in action or died of wounds sustained in World War I. In the peace negotiations that followed, the Italian government faced opposition from the other Allied leaders in securing all the territorial promises made in the Treaty of London. Italy would eventually receive control of the Tyrol and a permanent seat on the newly formed international peace-keeping organization, the League of Nations, but many within the country were dissatisfied with these outcomes. The resentment toward the other Allied powers would later contribute to the success of Benito Mussolini and his fascist movement.

The Italian Front

The Treaty of London

On April 26, 1915, Italy negotiated the secret Treaty of London with Great Britain, France, and Russia. In the treaty, the Allies promised to support Italy's annexation of the frontier lands in return for entering the war on the Entente side. Italy's aim was to annex the Austrian Littoral, northern Dalmatia, and the territories of present-day Trentino and South Tyrol.

On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. The Italian commander, General Luigi Cadorna, decided to concentrate his effort on an offensive eastward from the province of Venetia across the lower valley of the Isonzo (Soča) River. The Italians' initial advance eastward, begun late in May 1915, was soon halted, largely due to the flooding of the Isonzo, and trench warfare ensued.

Cadorna, however, was determined to push forward and embarked on a series of persistent renewals of the offensive, known as the Battles of the Isonzo. The first four of these (June 23–July 7; July 18–August 3; October 18–November 4; and November 10–December 2) achieved little at the cost of 280,000 men. The Austrians showed fierce resistance, often lacking when they faced the Russians.

In mid-May 1916, Cadorna's program was interrupted by an Austrian offensive from the Trentino into the Asiago region of western Venetia. Though the danger of an Austrian breakthrough was averted, the Italian counteroffensive in mid-June recovered only one-third of the territory overrun by the Austrians north and southwest of Asiago. The Sixth Battle of the Isonzo (August 6–17) did win Gorizia for the Italians.

On August 28, 1916, Italy declared war on Germany. The next three months saw three more Italian offensives on the Isonzo, none of them profitable. In the course of 1916, the Italians had sustained 500,000 casualties, twice as many as the Austrians, and were still on the Isonzo.

The End of the Italian Front

Military operations came to an end in 1918 with Italian victory and the capture of Trento and Trieste by Italy's forces. Austria-Hungary disintegrated due to military defeats and turmoils caused by pacifists and separatists. All military operations on the front came to an end with the entry into force of the armistice of Villa Giusti on November 4, 1918.

The Treaty of London's aftermath

The Treaty of London was a secret pact signed in April 1915 by Italy, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. It was designed to entice Italy to join World War I on the side of the Triple Entente. The treaty's promises of Italian territorial expansion against Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, as well as colonial enlargement in Africa, were instrumental in Italy's decision to enter the war.

The Treaty's Provisions

The Treaty of London offered Italy the opportunity to fulfil its irredentist objectives by annexing territories along its border with Austria-Hungary. These included regions such as Trentino, South Tyrol, Trieste, parts of Dalmatia, numerous islands along the Adriatic coast, and the Albanian port city of Vlore. Additionally, Italy was promised territorial gains in Africa and a portion of Asia Minor.

The Aftermath

The immediate aftermath of the Treaty of London saw Italy declare war on Austria-Hungary on May 23, 1915, marking its entry into World War I as an ally of Britain, France, and Russia. This opened up a new front in the war, stretching along the mountainous border between Italy and Austria-Hungary. The Italian army, despite its lack of industrialization and adequate equipment, advanced into the South Tyrol region and towards the Isonzo River, where they faced stiff resistance from Austro-Hungarian troops.

The Italian Front witnessed a series of bloody battles along the Isonzo River, resulting in heavy losses for both sides with little progress. In late October 1917, German intervention led to a significant Austrian-Hungarian victory at the Battle of Caporetto, inflicting heavy casualties on the Italians and forcing them to retreat. This sparked a crisis in Italy, leading to changes in military leadership and the formation of a coalition government.

By the time the fighting on the Italian Front ended in November 1918, Italy had suffered approximately 615,000 killed in action. In the subsequent peace negotiations in Paris, Italy struggled to obtain all the territories promised to them in the Treaty of London, facing opposition from its former allies. This dissatisfaction fuelled resentment towards the other Allied powers and contributed to the rise of Benito Mussolini and his fascist movement in Italy.

The Paris Peace Conference and Beyond

At the Paris Peace Conference, Italy's demands for the enforcement of the Treaty of London and the annexation of the city of Rijeka were met with resistance from its former allies. The British and French advocated for self-determination in the Adriatic region, while the American President, Woodrow Wilson, deemed the treaty invalid due to changes in circumstances following the breakup of Austria-Hungary. The Italian delegation briefly left the conference in protest.

Ultimately, Italy's gains were limited to the Julian March, Istria, several islands, and the city of Zadar as an enclave in Dalmatia. Rijeka was assigned the status of an independent city, and Italy was forced to compromise on its borders. The sense that Italy had lost the peace fuelled nationalist grievance and contributed to the rise of fascism in the country.

Frequently asked questions