Lyla Lindsey
Afghanistan's history has been shaped by ethnic fragmentation, Islam, and interference from major countries. The country has been susceptible to both communism and Islamic fundamentalism. After the transformation of Afghanistan into a constitutional monarchy in 1964, the roots of communism began to emerge. The first communist party to originate in the country was the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) in 1965, led by Nur Muhammad Taraki. The PDPA relied on the support of the Soviet Union and is often described as a puppet of Moscow.
In 1973, Muhammad Daoud Khan, a member of the monarchy, oversaw a coup against his cousin that ended the monarchy and created the Republic of Afghanistan. The PDPA would go on to rule Afghanistan from 1978 to 1992, largely due to Soviet support. The PDPA implemented several contentious reforms, including land and marriage reforms, and enforced a policy of de-Islamization alongside the promotion of socialism. The PDPA's policies were largely rejected by the people, and the party proved to be unpopular.
In 1979, the Soviet Red Army invaded Afghanistan to support local communists, leading to a decade of anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare that claimed the lives of at least one million Afghans. The Soviet-backed PDPA and the US-backed Afghan National Government (ANG) were both seen as imperialist pawns, operating on behalf of their foreign occupiers. The failure of the communist project serves as a lesson for any country attempting to exert influence over Afghanistan.
What You'll Learn
The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA)
The PDPA's secret constitution, adopted in January 1965 but never publicly released, described the party as "the vanguard of the working class and all labourers in Afghanistan". The party refrained from branding itself as "communist" in public, instead using labels such as "national democratic" and "socialist".
The PDPA soon split into two factions: the Khalq (People) and the Parcham (Flag). The Khalq faction, led by Taraki and Hafizullah Amin, was dominated by Pashto-speaking Afghans from outside Kabul and had strong ties to the military. The Parcham faction, led by Karmal, was dominated by Persian-speaking Afghans from Kabul and drew support from urbanised Afghans of various ethnic groups, including members of the ruling elite.
On 27 April 1978, the two factions united to stage a coup and take control of Afghanistan. The PDPA instituted a series of radical social reforms dealing with land tenure, education, and women's rights. These reforms, along with the party's strong antireligious and anticlerical position, proved too progressive for Afghans accustomed to the traditional social system. By 1979, the Islamic opposition had begun an aggressive guerrilla war against the government.
The PDPA relied heavily on assistance from the Soviet Union, especially during the Soviet-Afghan War. In December 1979, a large contingent of Soviet military forces entered Afghanistan and remained until 1989. The PDPA ruled Afghanistan until 1992, when its last president, Najibullah, resigned and Kabul was taken over by Islamic rebels.
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The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan
The Invasion
On 27 December 1979, Soviet forces stormed the Tajbeg Palace in Afghanistan, killing Afghan President Hafizullah Amin. Amin had only recently seized power, arresting and killing the previous president, Taraki, in September 1979. The Soviets then installed Babrak Karmal, from a rival faction, as Amin's successor.
The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to uphold the 1978 Soviet-Afghan Friendship Treaty, which was a bid by the Soviet Union to prop up the pro-Soviet regime by promising financial and military aid. The Soviets deployed 280 aircraft and 25,000 soldiers, taking Kabul in a matter of days.
The Conflict
The Soviet invasion sparked a bloody, nine-year civil war. The conflict saw approximately one million citizens lose their lives, and the country was razed to ruins. The Soviet forces were met with fierce resistance from the US-backed mujahidin in the countryside. The mujahidin employed guerrilla warfare tactics, attacking quickly before retreating into the mountains.
The Outcome
The Soviets did not foresee taking such an active role in fighting the rebels. However, their arrival only incensed the people, causing the mujahidin to gain strength and numbers. The Soviets attempted to downplay their involvement, but they were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war.
By the mid-1980s, the Soviet contingent was increased to 108,800 and fighting increased throughout the country. The military and diplomatic cost of the war to the USSR was high. By mid-1987, the Soviet Union, now under reformist leader Mikhail Gorbachev, announced it would start withdrawing its forces. The retreat began in 1988 and ended on 15 February 1989.
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The rise of the Taliban
The Taliban, or "students" in Pashto, first emerged in the early 1990s in northern Pakistan following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The predominantly Pashtun movement is believed to have originated in religious seminaries, or madrassas, mostly funded by Saudi Arabia, preaching a hardline form of Sunni Islam.
In the 1990s, the Taliban began to gain a foothold in Afghanistan, starting in Kandahar, which had traditionally been the centre of Pashtun power and culture. They were initially well-received by Afghans, who were weary of the corruption, brutality, and incessant fighting of Mujahideen warlords. The Taliban brought a sense of order and safety to the country, disarming the population and imposing Sharia law.
However, the Taliban also imposed strict restrictions on the population, particularly women, banning girls from attending school and women from working. They also banned television, music, and cinema, and introduced harsh punishments such as public executions and amputations for those found guilty of theft, adultery, or murder.
In 1996, the Taliban seized control of the country, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, with Kandahar-based Mullah Mohammed Omar as their leader. However, their rule was short-lived, as they were quickly overthrown by a US-led military coalition in 2001.
Following their defeat, the Taliban regrouped in Pakistan and began a long insurgency against the US-backed Afghan government. In 2020, they struck a deal with the Americans for US troops to withdraw, and in 2021, they swiftly recaptured the country as foreign forces left. The Taliban's return to power has been marked by economic collapse, a humanitarian crisis, and continued human rights abuses, particularly against women and minority groups.
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The PDPA's social reforms
The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) was a Marxist–Leninist political party in Afghanistan that was established on 1 January 1965. The PDPA initiated a program for national development and societal transformation, which included a variety of social reforms. Here is a detailed overview of the PDPA's social reforms:
Land Reform
The PDPA implemented land reforms to address the skewed pattern of land tenure in Afghanistan. The reforms aimed to create agricultural cooperatives that would receive government-provided agricultural inputs and establish peasants' consumer cooperatives to offer essential consumer goods at subsidised prices to their members. Additionally, state farms were also set up, although on a smaller scale.
Emancipation of Women
The PDPA placed a strong emphasis on women's rights and emancipation. They sought to eliminate traditional practices that were deemed feudal, such as usury, bride price, and forced marriage. The minimum age of marriage was raised, and men were encouraged to cut off their beards. The PDPA stressed the importance of education for women and launched ambitious literacy campaigns. They also established the Women's Democratic Organisation of Afghanistan in 1966, which later changed its name to the All-Afghanistan Women's Council in 1986. This organisation worked towards women's education, work, and equality and pushed for reforms in the areas of divorce and child custody.
Literacy and Education
The PDPA recognised the issue of illiteracy in Afghanistan, which affected around 90% of the population. They launched literacy campaigns and stressed the importance of education for both women and men. The PDPA also established schools and universities, with around 440,000 female students enrolled in educational institutions across the country.
Healthcare
The PDPA made efforts to improve healthcare in Afghanistan. They established medical facilities and provided access to healthcare services, particularly in the capital, Kabul.
Separation of Mosque and State
Abolition of Feudal Practices
The PDPA aimed to abolish feudal practices and challenged the power of local tribal chiefs, big landlords, and nomadic chieftains.
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The PDPA's internal struggles
The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) was a Marxist–Leninist political party established on 1 January 1965. The party was internally divided for most of its existence, split between the hardline Khalq faction and the moderate Parcham faction, each claiming to represent the "true" PDPA.
The Khalq-Parcham split erupted in 1967, with ideological and economic differences at its heart. The Khalqists adhered to rigid Marxist-Leninist dogma and a militant revolutionary line, while the Parchamis wanted to establish a "common front" with other left-wing parties. The Khalqs' supporters were largely ethnic Pashtuns from rural areas, while the Parchams drew support from urban citizens who favoured socioeconomic reforms. The Khalqs also accused the Parchams of allegiance to King Mohammed Zahir Shah, as their newspaper, the Parcham, was tolerated by the king.
In 1977, the two factions reunited after Soviet mediation, with the shared objective of overthrowing Daoud Khan's regime. However, the rivalry between the Khalq and Parcham factions persisted. Clashes between members often resulted in fatalities, with rival gangs firing at each other.
The PDPA's first leader, Nur Muhammad Taraki, was a Khalqist. During his rule, many Parcham leaders were purged, imprisoned, or executed. Taraki was later overthrown and executed in 1979 by Hafizullah Amin, a fellow Khalqist. Amin's rule was short-lived, as he was killed by Soviet forces in December 1979, leading to a Parchamite-dominated government under Babrak Karmal.
Karmal's leadership was also marked by internal strife and the continued rivalry with the Khalq faction. He was replaced as party leader in 1986 by Mohammad Najibullah, who renamed the party the Homeland Party in 1990 and moved away from Marxism-Leninism towards Afghan nationalism.
Throughout its existence, the PDPA struggled to reconcile the ideological differences between its factions, leading to a cycle of infighting, purges, and leadership changes that ultimately contributed to the party's downfall.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, Afghanistan was a communist country from 1978 to 1992. The communist government was led by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which was a Marxist-Leninist party with strong ties to the Soviet Union.
Afghanistan became a communist country through a series of political events and revolutions. It started with the transformation of the country into a constitutional monarchy in 1964, which led to the emergence of communist parties such as the PDPA in 1965. The PDPA gained influence and eventually overthrew the regime of Mohammed Daoud Khan in what became known as the Saur Revolution in 1978.
Communism in Afghanistan failed due to several factors, including internal conflicts within the PDPA, unpopular policies that clashed with traditional Afghan values, and the lack of broad-based support among the population. The PDPA's social reforms, such as land reforms and the promotion of gender equality, were seen as a threat to religious and tribal customs. Additionally, the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 to support the local communists further fueled opposition and led to a decade of anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare.
The impact of communism in Afghanistan was significant and had long-lasting effects. The communist government implemented policies that promoted gender equality, land reforms, and political representation for the Mujahideen. However, these policies were often unpopular and led to a backlash from those who saw them as a threat to traditional customs and values. The communist rule also sparked a decade-long anti-Soviet guerrilla war that resulted in a high number of civilian casualties and the largest refugee crisis in recent history. The failure of the communist project in Afghanistan serves as a lesson for other countries attempting to exert influence over the country.
