The Unending Tragedy Of Afghanistan's War-Torn History

Afghanistan has been involved in several wars over the course of its history, with varying outcomes. The country has experienced four Anglo-Afghan Wars, three Afghan Civil Wars, and various other conflicts with neighbouring countries and empires, including the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom.

The most recent conflict in Afghanistan was the 20-year war that began in 2001, triggered by the September 11 attacks. This war resulted in significant losses for Afghanistan, with high numbers of civilian casualties, economic devastation, and a resurgence of the Taliban. The United States also incurred substantial costs, with thousands of military personnel, contractors, and allied troops losing their lives. Ultimately, the war ended with a Taliban victory and the withdrawal of US and NATO forces from the country.

The US War in Afghanistan

Phase 1: Toppling the Taliban

The first phase of the war was brief, lasting just two months. It involved US-led coalition forces, including British troops, working with anti-Taliban allies like the Northern Alliance, to overthrow the Taliban regime. This phase culminated in the fall of Kandahar, the Taliban's spiritual home, in December 2001.

Phase 2: Defeating the Taliban and Rebuilding Afghanistan

The second phase, from 2002 to 2008, was marked by a US strategy to defeat the Taliban militarily and rebuild core institutions of the Afghan state. This period saw the establishment of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and efforts to reconstruct Afghanistan, including the creation of a new democratic government led by Hamid Karzai. However, the Taliban began to reassert themselves, adopting tactics like suicide bombings and improvised explosive devices (IEDs), which caused heavy casualties.

Phase 3: Counterinsurgency

The third phase began in 2008 and was characterised by a shift to classic counterinsurgency doctrine. US President Barack Obama's decision to temporarily increase US troop presence in Afghanistan was part of this strategy. The focus was on protecting the Afghan population from Taliban attacks and reintegrating insurgents. However, insurgent attacks and civilian casualties remained high, and the Afghan military and police forces struggled to hold off the Taliban.

Withdrawal and Taliban Resurgence

Despite the efforts of US and NATO forces, the Taliban remained resilient, and terrorist safe havens in Pakistan continued to undermine progress. In 2020, the US and the Taliban signed a peace deal, and President Joe Biden announced the withdrawal of US troops by September 11, 2021. This withdrawal marked the end of America's longest war.

The Soviet-Afghan War

The war began when the Soviets, under Leonid Brezhnev, invaded Afghanistan to support the local pro-Soviet government. The mujahideen, on the other hand, received support from various countries, including Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The involvement of these foreign powers made the war a proxy war between the US and the Soviet Union.

The mujahideen waged guerrilla warfare in the rugged, mountainous terrain of the countryside, while the Soviets occupied Afghanistan's major cities and communication arteries. The Soviets also laid millions of landmines and used aerial power to destroy villages and deny safe havens to the mujahideen.

The Soviet government initially planned to secure Afghanistan's towns and road networks, stabilize the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government, and withdraw their forces within six months to a year. However, they faced fierce resistance from Afghan guerrillas and operational challenges due to the difficult terrain. By the mid-1980s, the Soviet military presence had increased to approximately 115,000 troops, and the war effort inflicted a heavy toll on the Soviet Union's military, economic, and political resources.

In mid-1987, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced the withdrawal of Soviet military forces from Afghanistan. The final wave of disengagement began on May 15, 1988, and on February 15, 1989, the last Soviet military column left Afghanistan. The Soviet-Afghan War caused widespread destruction in Afghanistan and is considered a significant factor contributing to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.

The war resulted in devastating consequences, including the solidification of the concept of global violent jihad, the formation of al-Qaeda, and the rise of the Taliban regime. It left a long-lasting impact on both Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, shaping the post-Cold War world.

The First, Second and Third Anglo-Afghan Wars

The First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842)

The First Anglo-Afghan War was fought between the British Empire and the Emirate of Kabul from 1838 to 1842. The British, who were keen to control Afghanistan, initially succeeded in invading the country and installing a puppet ruler, Shah Shuja. However, the Afghans, led by Dost Mohammad Khan, resisted the occupation and the British position soon became untenable. The British eventually agreed to withdraw from Kabul in December 1841, but the retreat ended in disaster, with only a small number of the original 16,500 soldiers and camp attendants surviving. Shah Shuja was killed, and the British retook Kabul before withdrawing again in 1842. Dost Mohammad Khan was restored to power in 1843.

The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880)

The Second Anglo-Afghan War was fought between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880. The war was part of the Great Game between the British and Russian empires. The British invaded Afghanistan in November 1878, quickly forcing the Amir, Sher Ali Khan, to flee. His successor, Mohammad Yaqub Khan, signed the Treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, agreeing to receive a permanent British envoy and to conduct his foreign affairs in accordance with British wishes. However, the British envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, was killed in September 1879, leading to a resumption of hostilities. The British defeated Ayub Khan, the son of Sher Ali Khan, in September 1880, and installed Abdur Rahman Khan as the new Amir. The British left Afghanistan in April 1881, having achieved their goal of creating a buffer between the Raj and the Russian Empire.

The Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)

The Third Anglo-Afghan War was fought between British India and the Emirate of Afghanistan in 1919. The conflict began when Afghan troops crossed the border and captured the town of Bagh. The British responded by invading Afghanistan and pursuing the Afghans across the border. Despite some initial setbacks, the British eventually forced the Afghans back and an armistice was agreed in August 1919. The Treaty of Rawalpindi recognised Afghanistan's independence and affirmed the Durand Line as the border between the two countries.

The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, has a long history of conflict, dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era. The country has been invaded and fought over by various empires and coalitions, including the British, the Soviet Union, and most recently, a US-led coalition.

The modern state of Afghanistan can be traced back to the 18th century with the Durrani Afghan Empire, although some consider Dost Mohammad Khan, who united Afghanistan in the 19th century, to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Afghanistan gained independence from British rule in 1919, emerging as the Kingdom of Afghanistan under Amanullah Khan.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan has been plagued by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The country has been involved in four Anglo-Afghan Wars with Britain, three of which took place in the 19th century, and one in the 20th century. The Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919 resulted in Afghanistan gaining independence from foreign political hegemony.

Afghanistan's history is also marked by several civil wars, with the most recent one occurring between 2021 and 2023, following the Taliban's return to power and the collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. The Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist group, first controlled most of the country in 1996, establishing the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. However, their rule received little international recognition and was overthrown in the 2001 US invasion.

In 2021, the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan after capturing Kabul and overthrowing the Afghan government. Despite their attempts to gain recognition, the Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized. The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting prime minister Hasan Akhund.

The country continues to face challenges, including high levels of terrorism, poverty, malnutrition, and a struggling economy. The Taliban's interpretation and enforcement of Islamic law, particularly regarding women's rights, have drawn international condemnation. Additionally, the group has been accused of committing massacres, denying food supplies to civilians, and conducting a scorched earth policy.

The Taliban's victory

The Taliban's military strategy was adaptive and pragmatic, isolating and outmanoeuvring the Afghan security forces. They took advantage of the Afghan government's decision to focus on holding terrain through scattered checkpoints, which left their forces dispersed and unable to reinforce each other. The Taliban exploited this by disrupting ground communication lines, further isolating the checkpoints and setting the conditions for the defeat of Afghan forces.

The Taliban also employed sophisticated psychological warfare, flooding social media with images offering surrounded Afghan soldiers a choice: surrender or die, with the latter potentially endangering their families. This undermined morale and the will to fight, especially when combined with the physical isolation of Afghan forces and the Taliban's use of terror tactics, such as covert assassinations of civil society leaders and military personnel.

The Taliban's ideological motivation was another key factor. They framed their fight as a religious struggle against foreign occupiers, tapping into Afghan identity and history of resistance to outsiders. This inspired Afghans to fight and sapped the will of Afghan soldiers, who were fighting alongside what some called occupiers. The Taliban's ability to link their cause to the meaning of being Afghan was a crucial factor in their victory.

Additionally, the Taliban capitalised on the weaknesses of the Afghan government and its international allies. The Afghan government was plagued by corruption, political fragmentation, and a lack of popular support. The Taliban, on the other hand, had a coherent and unified leadership and were able to exploit grievances against the government, such as corruption and mistreatment by government officials or their allies. The Taliban also benefited from the withdrawal of US and NATO troops, which left the Afghan forces without critical military support and undermined the Afghan government's position.

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