The Islamic Legacy Of Afghanistan: A Historical Perspective

Islam came to Afghanistan through the Muslim conquests of the country, which began during the Muslim conquest of Persia as Arab Muslims migrated eastwards. The Muslim frontier in modern Afghanistan had become stabilised after the first century of the Lunar Hijri calendar, though full Islamisation was not achieved until the period between the 10th and 12th centuries under the Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasties.

Today, Islam is the official religion of Afghanistan, with the majority of the population being Muslim (approximately 99.7%). The Afghan government is established as a Sunni Islamic Republic, with Sunni-dominated governments having a history of discriminating against minority Shi'ites.

Islam arrived in Afghanistan during the Muslim conquest of Persia, as Arab Muslims migrated eastwards

The Sasanian Empire's vulnerability, coupled with the emergence of Islam in Arabia, set the stage for the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Prophet Muhammad died in 632 CE, and within a year, his successor, Abu Bakr, launched a campaign against the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires. The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran, began with the invasion of Mesopotamia in 633 CE, led by General Khalid ibn Walid. The Arabs scored a series of victories, including the Battle of Chains, the Battle of Walaja, and the Battle of Ullais, solidifying their hold over Mesopotamia.

In 636 CE, the Muslims defeated the Sasanian army at the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, followed by the capture of the Sasanian capital, Ctesiphon, in 637 CE. This marked a turning point in the Muslim conquest, as the Zagros Mountains became a natural border between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. Despite these setbacks, the Sasanians continued to resist, and in 642 CE, the Battle of Nahavand resulted in a decisive victory for the Muslims, solidifying their control over western Persia.

The conquest of Persia continued under Caliph Umar, who adopted a strategy of multi-pronged attacks. The Muslims invaded Azerbaijan, Fars, and Khorasan simultaneously, gradually extending their control over central and eastern Persia. The conquest of Khorasan, the second-largest Sasanian province, began in 650 CE and was completed by 651 CE, marking the end of Sasanian rule in Persia.

The Muslim conquest of Persia had far-reaching consequences. It led to the spread of Islam in the region, and the eventual decline of Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion of the Sasanians. Additionally, the Persians began to reassert their cultural identity, maintaining their language and adapting their traditions to the new Islamic framework. The integration of Persian and Islamic cultures laid the foundation for the "Iranian Islamic" identity, influencing various aspects of Muslim society, including art, literature, and science.

The Muslim conquest of Afghanistan began in 642 AD, but full Islamisation wasn't achieved until the 10th-12th centuries

The Muslim conquest of Afghanistan began in 642 AD, but full Islamisation was not achieved until the 10th-12th centuries.

The Muslim conquest of Afghanistan began in the middle of the 7th century, after the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed. In 642, Arab Muslims defeated the Sassanid Empire at the Battle of Nahāvand and advanced into the Afghan area. However, they were unable to hold the territory; cities submitted, only to rise in revolt, and the hastily converted returned to their old beliefs once the armies had passed. The harshness of Arab rule caused native dynasties to revolt after Arab power weakened.

The Arab Umayyads regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils and Kabul Shahis. The expeditions of Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 AD) were the last by the Arabs on Kabul and Zabul. The king of Kabul was captured by him and converted to Islam. The last Zunbil was killed by Ya'qub bin al-Layth along with his former overlord Salih b. al-Nadr in 865. Meanwhile, the Hindu Shahi of Kabul were defeated under Mahmud of Ghazni.

The Ghaznavids, a Turkic dynasty, ruled from the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan. They conquered most of present-day Afghanistan in the name of Islam. The near-complete conversion of Afghanistan to Islam was during the period of the Ghaznavids in the 10th century, with Kafiristan holding out until the 1890s.

The Pashtun people migrated westward from the Sulaiman Mountains in the 16th and 17th centuries, displacing or subjugating indigenous populations

The Pashtun people are an Eastern Iranic ethnic group, with populations primarily in northwestern Pakistan and southern and eastern Afghanistan. They are believed to have originated in the Sulaiman Mountains, located in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The Pashtun habitat during their conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni was located in the Sulaiman Mountains in the south of Afghanistan. The Pashtuns later began migrating westward from the Sulaiman Mountains in the 16th and 17th centuries, displacing or subjugating the indigenous populations such as the Tajiks, Hazaras, the Farsiwanis, Nuristanis and Pashayi people.

The Pashtun people are predominantly a nomadic, pastoral people. They are united primarily by a common language, Pashto, and the practice of Pashtunwali, a pre-Islamic code of conduct, culture and honour. The Pashtun people are believed to have originated from various tribes, including the Aryans, Persians, Medes, Mauryas, Scythians, Kushans, Hephthalites, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols.

The Pashtun people are believed to have migrated from the Sulaiman Mountains to the Kabul River valley, where the Tajiks formed the dominant population of Kabul, Nangarhar, Logar Valley and Laghman in east Afghanistan. The Pashtun people are believed to have migrated westward from the Sulaiman Mountains to Qandahar and Herat in the 15th century. The migration of the Pashtun people from the Sulaiman Mountains is thought to have begun in the 14th century.

The Sunni Islamic Republic of Afghanistan places societal pressure on its citizens to adhere to Sunni Islamic traditions

Afghanistan is a Sunni Islamic Republic, with approximately 99.7% of the population being Muslim. The country's cultural and national identity is deeply shaped by Islam, which influences dress, dietary codes, language, and daily prayers.

The Afghan government has enlisted religious leaders to legitimize and sanction its state efforts, enhancing the religious community's influence. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis but rarely exercise secular authority for long. Politicized Islam in Afghanistan represents a break from Afghan traditions.

Islam is a central, pervasive influence throughout Afghan society, with religious observances punctuating the rhythm of each day and season. Smaller community-maintained mosques stand at the center of villages, towns, and city neighborhoods. These masjids serve not only as places of worship but also as shelters for guests, meeting places, and schools.

Because Islam is a totalitarian way of life and functions as a comprehensive code of social behavior, individual and family status depends on the proper observance of the society's value system, which is based on concepts defined in Islam. These include honesty, frugality, generosity, virtuousness, piousness, fairness, truthfulness, tolerance, and respect for others. Elders also control the behavior of their children according to these Islamic prescriptions.

Veneration of saints and shrines is opposed by some Islamic groups, particularly those ascribing to Salafi or Ahle Hadith. Nevertheless, Afghanistan's landscape is liberally strewn with shrines honoring saints of all descriptions. Many of Afghanistan's oldest villages and towns grew up around shrines of considerable antiquity.

The religious establishment has several levels. Any Muslim can lead informal groups in prayer. Mullahs who officiate at mosques are normally appointed by the government after consultation with their communities. Supposedly versed in the Quran, Sunnah, Hadith, and Shariah, they must ensure that their communities are knowledgeable in the fundamentals of Islamic ritual and behavior. This qualifies them to arbitrate disputes over religious interpretation.

The Taliban, a radicalised Sunni terrorist group, targets and kills members of minority religious communities

The Taliban is a radicalised Sunni terrorist group that has targeted and killed members of minority religious communities in Afghanistan. The Taliban has been internationally condemned for restricting human rights in Afghanistan, including the right of women and girls to work and to have an education. The Taliban's harsh interpretation of Sharia law has resulted in brutal treatment of many Afghans.

The Taliban has targeted Hazaras, a predominantly Shia Muslim ethnic group, for massacres and other serious abuses. Hazaras have faced discrimination and abuse by successive Afghan governments for over a century. The Taliban's crackdown on the media, especially in the provinces, means that additional attacks have likely gone unreported.

The Taliban has also targeted Sikhs and Hindus in Afghanistan, who have faced religious persecution, discrimination, and violence. The majority of the once-thriving community of thousands fled to India, Europe, and America during the decades of war and the rise of the Taliban in the 1990s.

The Taliban has also targeted Christians in Afghanistan. In 2008, the Taliban claimed that they murdered three Western women working for an aid group because they were foreign spies. In 2010, the Taliban claimed that they murdered ten medical aid workers because they were proselytizing Christianity.

The Taliban's strict interpretation of Sharia law has also impacted women's rights. Women were banned from working, girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities, and women were required to wear head-to-toe coverings such as the burqa.

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