The Afghan Cold War Nexus: A Historical Perspective

Afghanistan's strategic importance in the context of the Cold War can be traced back to the 19th century when it became a pawn in the Great Game between the British and Russian empires. This rivalry continued into the 20th century, with Afghanistan maintaining its geopolitical significance even after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the end of British colonial rule in India.

During the Cold War, Afghanistan's position on the front lines was further solidified by its proximity to the Soviet Union and its relations with the West. The country received significant economic and military aid from the Soviet Union, while also cultivating ties with the United States.

The Soviet-Afghan War, which lasted from 1979 to 1989, was a major conflict of the Cold War. It began when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to support the local pro-Soviet government and combat anti-communist Muslim guerrillas, known as the mujahideen. The mujahideen received support from various countries, including the United States, Pakistan, and China, making the war a proxy conflict between the two superpowers.

The war resulted in devastating consequences for Afghanistan, with millions of civilians displaced and killed. It also had a significant impact on the Soviet Union, contributing to its economic decline and eventual collapse. Additionally, the power vacuum created by the Soviet withdrawal led to a civil war in Afghanistan, which allowed extremist groups like the Taliban and al-Qaeda to gain a foothold in the country.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979

On Christmas Eve 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, its Central Asian neighbour to the south. The invasion was the culmination of growing Soviet domination in Afghanistan, dating back to 1973. The USSR sent thousands of troops into Afghanistan, immediately assuming complete military and political control of Kabul and large portions of the country.

The invasion was an attempt to shore up the newly established pro-Soviet regime in Kabul. The Soviets air-dropped elite troops into principal Afghan cities, swiftly taking control of major cities and highways. Within days, the KGB, which had infiltrated the Afghan presidential palace, poisoned the president and his ministers, installing a new puppet leader, Babrak Karmal.

The invasion triggered a brutal, nine-year-long Afghan civil war. The Soviets dealt harshly with the Mujahideen rebels, levelling villages to deny them safe havens. The Mujahideen, in turn, used guerrilla tactics, attacking and then disappearing into the mountains. The Soviets also faced fierce resistance when they ventured out of their strongholds into the countryside.

The war caused significant damage to Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, with an estimated one million civilians killed, alongside 125,000 Mujahideen fighters, 18,000 Afghan troops, and 14,500 Soviet soldiers. The conflict also wreaked havoc on the Soviet economy and national prestige, contributing significantly to the USSR's collapse and breakup.

The US's response to the invasion

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 was a watershed event of the Cold War. The US response was shaped by the Carter administration's recognition of the invasion as an unacceptable act of aggression. Here is a detailed account of the US response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan:

• Condemnation and Diplomatic Actions: The US government, led by President Jimmy Carter, vehemently condemned the Soviet invasion. Carter sent a sharply-worded letter to Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, denouncing Soviet aggression and violation of international law. The US also recalled its ambassador from Moscow and ended diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. These actions signalled a severe deterioration in US-Soviet relations and effectively ended the era of détente.
• Economic Sanctions and Trade Embargoes: The US imposed economic sanctions and trade embargoes on the Soviet Union. One significant measure was the embargo on grain sales to the Soviets, as they depended on grain imports from the US. This move aimed to pressure the Soviet Union economically and encourage their withdrawal from Afghanistan.
• Olympic Boycott: President Carter led a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow. Around 60 countries joined the boycott to protest the Soviet invasion. This action further isolated the Soviet Union on the international stage.
• Military Aid to Afghan Rebels: The US provided military aid to the Afghan rebels, known as the mujahideen or mujahedeen, who were fighting against the Soviet invasion. The US supplied weapons and funds to the mujahideen through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). This support was part of a larger Cold War strategy to counter Soviet influence in the region.
• Carter Doctrine: President Carter announced his own doctrine, vowing to protect Middle Eastern oil supplies from Soviet encroachment. This doctrine asserted America's commitment to countering Soviet expansionism in the region.
• Increased Defence Spending: The US increased its defence spending and directed the military to develop strategies for surviving and winning a potential nuclear war with the Soviet Union. This move reflected a shift towards a more hard-line approach in superpower relations.
• Alliance Building: The US formed alliances with other countries, such as China and Israel, to support the Afghan rebels and counter Soviet influence. These alliances contributed to a global effort to isolate the Soviet Union and exert pressure on them.
• Support for Afghan Refugees: The US provided support for the millions of Afghan refugees who fled to neighbouring countries like Pakistan and Iran due to the conflict. This humanitarian response was an important aspect of America's involvement in the crisis.

The war as a proxy conflict between the US and the USSR

The Soviet-Afghan War was a major conflict of the Cold War, fought between the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), the Soviet Union, and their allied paramilitary groups, and the Afghan mujahideen and their foreign allies. The mujahideen were backed by various countries, but most of their support came from Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, China, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. This involvement of foreign powers made the war a proxy conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.

The war began in 1979 when the Soviets, under Leonid Brezhnev's command, invaded Afghanistan to support the local pro-Soviet government. The invasion triggered a brutal, nine-year civil war and contributed significantly to the USSR's collapse. The Soviets wanted to prop up their new but faltering client state, now headed by Babrak Karmal, who was installed as Afghanistan's new head of government. However, Karmal was unable to attain significant popular support, and the mujahideen rebellion, backed by the United States, grew and spread throughout the country.

The mujahideen employed guerrilla tactics, attacking and raiding quickly before disappearing into the mountains. They used weapons they could grab from the Soviets or were given by the United States. The tide of the war turned in 1987 with the introduction of US shoulder-launched anti-aircraft missiles, which allowed the mujahideen to shoot down Soviet planes and helicopters regularly.

The war became a quagmire for the Soviets, and despite failing to implement a sympathetic regime in Afghanistan, they signed an accord with the US, Pakistan, and Afghanistan and agreed to withdraw their troops in 1988. The Soviet withdrawal was completed on February 15, 1989, with Afghanistan returning to non-aligned status. The conflict resulted in the deaths of approximately 3,000,000 Afghans, while millions more fled the country as refugees. The war wreaked havoc not only on Afghanistan but also on the Soviet Union, whose economy and national prestige suffered a severe blow.

The mujahideen's guerrilla tactics

The mujahideen's ability to move with relative freedom throughout the countryside and their knowledge of the local terrain gave them a significant advantage over the Soviet troops. They used hit-and-run tactics, inflicting losses on Soviet convoys and then melting away before the Soviets could retaliate. They also utilised the rugged, mountainous terrain to their advantage, launching attacks from ambush spots that the Soviets failed to anticipate.

The mujahideen's guerrilla warfare was highly effective in neutralising Soviet air power. They used shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles, supplied by the United States, to shoot down Soviet planes and helicopters regularly. This forced the Soviets to rely more on ground forces, which the mujahideen were adept at evading and engaging in close-quarters combat.

The Soviet Union's withdrawal in 1989

The Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 marked the end of a decade of conflict and the beginning of another civil war. The Soviet retreat was a well-executed and carefully planned operation, but the announcement of a rigid timetable forced the Soviets to hand over authority in certain provinces prematurely, creating vacuums that insurgent groups quickly filled.

The Soviet-Afghan War was a protracted armed conflict fought between the Soviet-controlled Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) and the Afghan mujahideen, with the mujahideen receiving support from various countries, including the United States, Pakistan, and China. The war was a significant conflict of the Cold War, and it wreaked havoc on both Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, severely damaging the Soviet economy and national prestige.

The Soviet Union's decision to withdraw was influenced by a desire to improve its international standing and ease Cold War tensions. The Soviet leadership, under Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to withdraw gracefully and maintain a friendly, neutral government in Afghanistan. Gorbachev attempted to aid the consolidation of power by the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and directed the Afghan president, Mohammad Najibullah, towards a policy of "National Reconciliation" through diplomacy with the rebelling Islamists of the Afghan mujahideen.

The Geneva Accords, signed on April 14, 1988, between Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Soviet Union, and the United States, paved the way for the Soviet withdrawal. The accords outlined a strict timetable for the withdrawal, with the first phase lasting from May 15 to August 15, 1988, and the second phase beginning in January and ending on February 15, 1989.

The Soviet 40th Army conducted the withdrawal with a force of around 100,000 men, divided into several divisions and brigades. The Soviets protected their retreat with additional tank and artillery units and round-the-clock close-air support. They also negotiated local ceasefires and paid insurgents not to attack them, which proved very effective in deterring interference.

However, the mujahideen took advantage of the power vacuum created by the Soviet withdrawal and launched massive attacks on DRA forces. Najibullah, fearing the loss of control, urged the Soviets not to withdraw from the Western corridor as planned, and they complied, evacuating Kunduz instead.

The second phase of the withdrawal began in January 1989 and was marked by Operation Typhoon, a Soviet attack on the forces of Ahmed Shah Masood, one of the rebel leaders. The operation killed over 600 of Masood's fighters, according to Soviet estimates.

The last Soviet aircraft left Bagram Airfield on February 3, 1989, and the final ground troops departed Kabul on February 4. The last major Soviet troop contingent crossed the border into the Soviet Union from February 11-14, with the commanding officer of the 40th Army, General Boris Gromov, crossing on February 15.

The Soviet Union continued to provide substantial military and financial aid to the Najibullah regime until its collapse in December 1991. The cessation of this support ultimately doomed the government, and the mujahideen took control of Kabul in 1992, leading to another civil war.

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