The Faithful Of Kabul: Exploring Afghanistan's Religious Landscape

Afghanistan is an Islamic state, with approximately 99.7% of the population being Muslim. The majority of these are Sunni Muslims, with around 90% of the population practising Sunni Islam, while around 10% are Shia Muslims. The Afghan government is established as a Sunni Islamic Republic, and so there is a strong societal pressure to adhere to Sunni Islamic traditions. The cultural and national identity of Afghanistan is deeply shaped by Islam, with faith in the religion noticeable in dress, dietary codes, regular prayers and language.

However, the numbers of minority Muslim and non-Muslim groups have significantly declined over the past decades as people have fled sectarian tensions and conflict. There are small residual communities of other faiths, including Christians, Sikhs, Hindus and Baha'i.

The Taliban, a radicalised Sunni terrorist insurgency group, continue to target and kill members of minority religious communities over their beliefs. They often attack Shia places of worship or religious ceremonies.

The Taliban's interpretation of Islamic law

The Taliban's interpretation of Sharia law is influenced by the Deobandi strand of Hanafi jurisprudence, which is prevalent in several parts of Southeast Asia, including Pakistan and India. Additionally, the Taliban's interpretation is shaped by their own lived experience as a predominantly rural and tribal society. They are considered "`classical'" or "orthodox" in their interpretation, aligning with scholars from the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East.

During their previous rule in Afghanistan from 1996 to 2001, the Taliban imposed a strict interpretation of Sharia law. Women were barred from working outside the home, attending school beyond the age of 10, or accessing male-administered healthcare. They were required to wear the burqa and cover their faces in public from the age of eight and were only permitted to leave their homes with a male guardian. The Taliban also banned television, music, and cinema, and implemented harsh criminal punishments, including public executions and amputations for crimes such as theft, adultery, and murder.

Following their takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, the Taliban pledged to respect the rights of women "within the framework of Islamic law" or "within the bounds of Sharia." However, they have remained vague on the specific rules and restrictions that will be imposed. There are concerns that the Taliban will impose their draconian interpretation of Sunni Islam on women and girls, similar to what occurred during their previous rule. The group's actions since their return to power have been contradictory, with reports of female journalists being allowed to resume work alongside incidents of female employees being told to stay home and male relatives being asked to take their places.

Sunni-Shia sectarian tensions

The Taliban, a Sunni religious and Pashtun nationalist group, have a history of targeting Shia civilians and imposing restrictions on Shia gatherings. During their rule in the 1990s, the Taliban banned public Shia rituals and were responsible for the massacre of hundreds of Shia civilians. In recent years, the Taliban have continued to attack Shia-populated areas, particularly in the capital city of Kabul. They have also formed an alliance with ISIS, which has claimed responsibility for several deadly attacks on Shia mosques and communities.

The Afghan government has struggled to combat growing sectarian conflicts and prevent the influence of rival religious states, such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, which compete in establishing madrasas that promote sectarian enmity. Additionally, the government has failed to address the spread of religious hatred by clerics in mosques and the harassment and attacks on Shias in Taliban-controlled areas.

The cloud of sectarianism hangs over Afghanistan at a critical time, as peace talks between the Afghan government and the Taliban are underway. The Taliban's insistence on Sunni Hanafi jurisprudence as the basis for governance has alarmed Afghan Shias, who fear a rollback of the constitutional rights and political representation they have gained since the toppling of the Taliban regime in 2001.

While the Afghan government and civil society strive for constitutional rights, freedom of speech, and protection for religious minorities, the country faces the daunting task of preventing a descent into sectarian war. The complex dynamics between the Afghan government, the Taliban, and other extremist groups continue to shape the religious landscape and the prospects for lasting peace in Afghanistan.

Religious freedom in Afghanistan

Afghanistan is a nation of 37.5 million people, 99.7% of whom are Muslim. Of those, between 10% and 15% are Shi'a, with the rest being Sunni. The country's constitution enshrines "the sacred religion of Islam" as "the religion of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan", with its presidents taking an oath to "obey and protect the Holy religion of Islam".

While the constitution states that followers of other religions are "free to exercise their faith and perform their religious rites within the limits of the provisions of the law", in practice, nonconformity is dangerous. Even with U.S. troops on the ground, religious freedoms were limited.

In the past, Afghanistan was home to more than 200,000 Sikhs and Hindus. However, with persecution rising, those communities "have really been decimated", according to Jim Carr, a member of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom. As of August 16, 2021, there was only one Jew, 50 Hindus, 270 Sikhs and 450 Ahmadis left in the country. Christians and Baha'is are unable to worship openly, and their numbers are unknown.

The Taliban's harsh and strict interpretation of Sunni Islam poses a grave threat to all Afghans of differing interpretations and faiths. Their resurgence has led to increased religious intolerance and persecution, with religious minorities being forced to flee the country.

Even before the Taliban's return to power, religious freedom conditions in Afghanistan were trending negatively due to ongoing political instability and civil war. Lack of security remains the primary challenge to protecting the freedom of religion or belief in the country. Attacks by extremist groups, including the Taliban and Islamic State in Khorasan Province (ISKP), not only threaten Afghanistan’s overall stability but also endanger religious minorities, particularly Shi'a Muslims.

According to the U.S. State Department's 2020 Report on International Religious Freedom, the Afghan government has failed to protect religious minorities from attacks by extremist groups. The report also notes that the government continued to limit the freedom of religion through its laws and policies. For example, the government continued to ban the proselytization of Muslims and prohibited the distribution of non-Muslim literature.

The report further states that religious minorities in Afghanistan continued to face discrimination and violence from both state and non-state actors. This includes attacks on places of worship, religious leaders, and worshippers, as well as societal discrimination and harassment. The COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted the ability of religious minorities to practice their faith, as many have been unable to gather for services and other religious activities.

The future of religious freedom in Afghanistan remains uncertain. The Taliban has attempted to project a more moderate image since regaining power, but it remains to be seen if this will translate into improved respect for religious minorities. The international community must continue to advocate for the protection and promotion of religious freedom in Afghanistan, as the situation on the ground is likely to remain precarious for religious minorities.

The role of religion in Afghanistan

Afghanistan is an Islamic state, with the majority of its citizens following Islam. The country's constitution establishes Islam as the state religion, with approximately 99.7% of the population being Muslim. The religion is deeply ingrained in the cultural and national identity of Afghanistan, influencing dress, dietary codes, language, and social customs.

Islam was not always the dominant religion in the region. Historically, Afghanistan has connections to Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Christianity. The religious demographics of the region shifted over time, with Islam gradually becoming the primary religion after its introduction in the 7th century AD.

Afghanistan's Islamic history is characterised by various sects and interpretations. The two main variations of Islam practised in the country are Sunni and Shi'a, with ethnic groups generally associated with one or the other. Most Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Turkmen are Sunni, while Hazaras are predominantly Shi'a.

The Taliban, a radicalised Sunni terrorist insurgency group, has played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of Afghanistan. They imposed their strict interpretation of Islam on the country during their rule, targeting and persecuting religious minorities. The Taliban's ideology is based on Sunni Hanafi Islam, with influences from the Deobandi school, which seeks to purify" Islam by returning to the Qur'an and Hadith.

The Taliban's return to power in 2021 has raised concerns about religious freedom and tolerance in Afghanistan. The group has stated that the country will be governed as an Islamic emirate, with laws and governance based on their interpretation of Sharia law. This has led to increased violations against religious minorities, causing many to flee the country.

Despite the dominance of Islam, there are small communities of religious minorities in Afghanistan, including Hindus, Sikhs, Christians, Baha'is, and Jews. These groups have faced discrimination, harassment, and restrictions on their religious practices. The numbers of these minority groups have declined over the years due to sectarian tensions and conflict.

Islam's influence on Afghan culture and identity

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in south-central Asia, bordering Iran, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan. It is a multi-ethnic society with diverse ethnic, linguistic, and tribal groups. The country is officially a Sunni Islamic Republic, with approximately 99.7% of the population being Muslim. Islam has had a profound influence on the identity and culture of Afghanistan, from the way people dress and eat to the way they speak and behave.

Islam in Afghanistan began to be practised after the Arab Islamic conquest of the country from the 7th to the 10th centuries, with the last holdouts converting in the late 19th century. It replaced Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, which had previously been the dominant religions in the region. During the Islamic Golden Age, Afghanistan became a major centre of learning in the Muslim world.

The cultural and national identity of Afghanistan is deeply shaped by Islam. This is evident in the way Afghans dress, with modest clothing that covers the entire body, including a form of head covering for women. It is also reflected in dietary codes, with certain restrictions on food and the prohibition of alcohol. Afghans also show reverence to Allah (God) in their speech, often slipping praise into casual conversation.

Islamic values, concepts, and practices inform many social and behavioural norms in Afghanistan. Afghans generally have a strong sense of personal honour and are highly aware of their community's opinion of them. Hospitality, loyalty, and modesty are highly valued. The concept of family is extremely important, with a traditional patriarchal age hierarchy prevailing throughout society. Men typically carry the economic burden of the family, while women are largely in charge of domestic chores and caring for the children.

Islam also plays a significant role in the political, economic, and legal aspects of Afghan life. While not all Afghans are strictly observant Muslims, everyone tends to engage with Islam to some degree as Islamic customs form the basis of many cultural norms. The government has enacted laws that comply with Islamic law, and religious leaders have periodically employed Islam to rally disparate groups in opposition to the state.

Afghanistan is a mostly tribal society, with different regions having their own subcultures. However, nearly all Afghans follow Islamic traditions, celebrate the same holidays, and share similar food and music. Islam represents a potentially unifying force in a country with deep pride in tribal loyalties and a strong sense of personal and family honour.

In recent years, Afghan culture has been fragmented and impacted by constant conflict and warfare. The country has experienced invasions, insurgency, and religious extremism, which have shaped the national character and outlook of its people. Despite these challenges, Afghanistan remains a diverse and resilient nation, with a rich cultural heritage that continues to evolve.

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