Leslie Massey
The Second Schleswig War, also known as the German-Danish War, was fought between Denmark and an alliance of Prussia and Austria. The war began on 1 February 1864, when Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into the Danish fief of Schleswig. Austria was reluctant to enter the war, only consenting to press the war after Bismarck urged them to adopt a strong policy. The war was the second military conflict over the Schleswig-Holstein question of the nineteenth century.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | 1 February 1864 |
| Reason | Prussia and Austria declared war on Denmark |
| Outcome | Defeat of Denmark |
| Loss of territory | Denmark lost a third of its territory and 40% of its population |
| Loss of duchies | Holstein, Lauenburg, and Schleswig |
| Impact on Denmark | National trauma, end of the Danish-German composite state, and creation of modern-day Denmark |
| Impact on Prussia | Prussia's effectiveness in war was proven, which contributed to the perception that Prussia was the only state that could defend the other German states |
| Impact on Austria | Austria's defeat in the war led to a shift in power among the German states away from Austria and towards Prussia |
| Impact on Europe | The war was a prelude to Prussia's larger wars against Austria and France |
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What You'll Learn
Austria's alliance with Prussia
The Second Schleswig War, also known as the Dano-Prussian War or Prusso-Danish War, was a conflict between Denmark and the German Confederation, which comprised Prussia and Austria. The war, which lasted from February 1864 to October 1864, was fought for control of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
Prussia and Austria's alliance during the Second Schleswig War can be attributed to several factors, including their shared interest in the duchies, the balance of power within the German Confederation, and the broader context of European politics at the time.
Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Minister President, played a crucial role in securing the alliance with Austria. Bismarck sought to settle the issue of the duchies and consolidate Prussian dominance within the German Confederation. By allying with Austria, Bismarck aimed to strengthen Prussia's position and gain a strategic advantage over Denmark. The Gastein Convention, which established the joint administration of Schleswig and Holstein by Prussia and Austria, was a key moment in solidifying their alliance.
However, the alliance between Prussia and Austria was not without tensions. Prussia's primary goal was the expansion of its influence, while Austria was more focused on maintaining its power status within the German Confederation. Despite their differences, the two powers worked together during the Second Schleswig War, with Prussia taking the lead in military engagements. The war ended with a Prussian and Austrian victory, resulting in the cession of the disputed duchies to the two powers.
The Second Schleswig War had significant repercussions for the region, as it marked a shift in the balance of power. Prussia's success in the war bolstered its position within the German states, while Austria's influence waned. This dynamic ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, which concluded with Prussian dominance and the abolition of the German Confederation.
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The Austro-Prussian War
The war itself was a clash between two rival powers, each aided by various allies within the German Confederation. The Prussian army, recognising the need to stay ahead of their Austrian foes, sent officers to observe the American Civil War and learn from the tactics employed by both Union and Confederate forces. The Prussian economy was also in a phase of rapid growth, aided by the German customs union, the Zollverein, which provided the resources necessary to equip their armies with advanced weaponry.
On the other hand, the Austrian Empire was still reeling from the effects of the Hungarian revolution. Despite this, they had found success in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians in both land and sea battles. However, Italy's "Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi, dealt a blow to the Austrians, conquering part of Trentino and advancing towards Trento. The redeployment of Austrian troops to hold the Danube facilitated an Italian march through the Venetian coastal plain, ultimately leading to the armistice of Cormons.
The war's aftermath saw the formation of the North German Confederation, which united Prussia with its allies Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, and southern Hesse. This confederation played a crucial role in shaping the future of the region, as it provided the foundation for the eventual unification of Germany and the creation of one of the most influential world powers, the German Empire.
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The November Constitution of 1863
The constitution was a response to a crisis that emerged in the late 1850s and early 1860s during revisions of the 1848 constitution. Holstein refused to acknowledge the revisions, creating a situation where the parliament in Copenhagen ratified them, but Holstein did not. This crisis was further exacerbated by the death of King Frederik VII in 1863, after which the new Danish monarch, King Christian IX, ordered that the new constitution should apply to Schleswig and Denmark but not to Holstein. This was a clear breach of the 1851 peace treaty and the London Protocol of 1852, and it gave Prussia and the German Confederation a casus belli against Denmark.
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Danish defeat and loss of territory
The Second Schleswig War, also known as the German-Danish War, was a conflict between Denmark and the combined forces of Prussia and Austria. The war began on 1 February 1864 when Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into the Danish fief of Schleswig. Denmark was fighting for control of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
Within days of the initial contact between the opposing armies, the Danes were forced to retreat. The Danes had to abandon the Danewirk, a band of earthen fortifications guarding against incursions into Jutland, without a struggle when the Prussians threatened to turn the flank of the whole Danish defensive line. The Danish army was outnumbered and outgunned, especially in terms of artillery.
The war resulted in a defeat for Denmark and a loss of territory. Denmark lost the two German duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg and the ethnically mixed Danish duchy of Schleswig, amounting to a loss of a third of its territory and 40% of its population. This defeat marked the end of the Danish-German composite state and the creation of modern-day Denmark. The loss also dealt a blow to Danish nationalism and the idea that Denmark was still a great power.
The Second Schleswig War is considered a national trauma in Denmark, giving rise to an existential angst that has influenced Danish identity, culture, history, and politics. The war is often referred to simply as "1864", the year it took place, reflecting its significance in Danish history.
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The role of Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian statesman and diplomat who played a significant role in the events leading up to and during the Second Schleswig War, also known as the German-Danish War. Bismarck's actions and policies contributed to the complex dynamics between Prussia, Austria, and Denmark, which ultimately led to Austria's delayed involvement in the conflict. Here is an examination of his role in four to six paragraphs.
Bismarck's Rise to Power and Ideology: Bismarck became the Minister President of Prussia in 1862, and his Realpolitik approach and diplomatic skills were key in shaping Prussia's course of action. Bismarck sought to enhance Prussia's power and influence, which meant challenging the hegemony of Austria within the German Confederation. He envisioned a Prussian-dominated northern Europe, believing that Austria's power should be redirected towards the Slavic areas in the south. This perspective clashed with the prevailing sentiment that favoured close cooperation with Austria. Bismarck's determination to assert Prussian interests set the stage for his strategic manoeuvres in the coming years.
The Schleswig-Holstein Question: The dispute over the territories of Schleswig and Holstein was a central issue in the conflict with Denmark. When King Frederick VII of Denmark died in 1863, his successor, Christian IX, issued a decree that the new constitution should apply to Schleswig and Denmark but not Holstein. This breach of the 1851 peace treaty and the London Protocol of 1852 provided a casus belli for Prussia and the German Confederation against Denmark. Bismarck, recognising the importance of the duchies, worked to secure Austrian cooperation, which was crucial for Prussian ambitions.
The Second Schleswig War: In 1864, Prussian and Austrian forces crossed the border into Schleswig, initiating the Second Schleswig War. Bismarck, despite initially insisting on the territories' connection to the Danish monarch, denounced King Christian IX's decision to annex Schleswig. With Austrian support, he issued an ultimatum, demanding that Denmark revert Schleswig to its previous status. When Denmark refused, Austria and Prussia invaded, forcing Denmark to renounce its claims on the disputed duchies. Bismarck's diplomatic skills were instrumental in securing Austrian cooperation and ensuring their joint military action against Denmark.
The Gastein Convention and its Aftermath: After the Second Schleswig War, Bismarck continued to pursue his agenda. At the Gastein Convention, he established an Austrian alliance, luring Austria into a conflict that ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Bismarck accused Austria of violating the convention and sent Prussian troops to occupy Holstein, provoking Austria. With the support of Italy, which desired Austrian-controlled Veneto, Prussia was able to defeat Austria and establish its dominance over the German states. This conflict further solidified Bismarck's reputation as a strategic diplomat and a key figure in shaping the balance of power in Europe.
The Impact on Unification: Bismarck's actions during the Second Schleswig War and the subsequent Austro-Prussian War had significant implications for German unification. By deliberately excluding Austria, he laid the foundation for the creation of the North German Confederation, which unified the northern German states under Prussian leadership. This period witnessed three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia. In 1871, Bismarck unified Germany into a nation-state, forming the German Empire with himself as Chancellor. His Realpolitik and firm governance earned him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor."
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Frequently asked questions
Austria was not late to the Danish War, also known as the Second Schleswig War, the German-Danish War, or the Dano-Prussian War. The war started on 1 February 1864, and Austrian forces participated in the initial invasion of the Danish fief of Schleswig alongside Prussian forces.
Austria's participation in the war was inspired by a desire to thwart Prussia's ambitions in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and Prussia had an intense rivalry, and Austria wanted to prevent Prussian dominance over the German states.
The Austrian army was successful in capturing the town of Vejle after fierce house-to-house combat. However, the broader European political situation was favourable for Prussia, and the war ultimately resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states and a shift in power away from Austria.
Denmark's defeat in the Second Schleswig War resulted in the loss of the duchies of Holstein, Lauenburg, and Schleswig, amounting to a loss of a third of its territory and 40% of its population. This defeat was a national trauma that significantly impacted Danish politics, historiography, art, and national identity.
