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Austria-Hungary, also known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was a constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It was formed by two sovereign states, Austria and Hungary, with a single monarch who was both the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers during World War I, along with the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in June 1914 was a significant catalyst for the start of World War I, as it led to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia, which in turn brought other European powers into the conflict due to their system of alliances. The role of Austria-Hungary in the war was influenced by its alliance with Germany, which resulted in Austria-Hungary becoming a military satellite of Germany and abandoning its plans to conquer Serbia. The performance of the Austrian army was impacted by incompetence in its high command and a lack of preparation for expeditious offensives. The collapse of the Italian front led to the acceptance of the Armistice of Villa Giusti in November 1918, marking the end of Austria-Hungary's involvement in the war.
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What You'll Learn
Austria's role in Nazi war crimes
Austria played a significant role in Nazi war crimes during World War II. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria with the support of the Austrian population, and Austria became an integral part of the Third Reich. This event, known as the Anschluss, marked the beginning of Austria's involvement in Nazi crimes.
Before the Anschluss, Austria had a Jewish population of about 192,000, who played an important role in the country's economic and cultural life. However, the Nazis' policies towards the Jewish population shifted from expropriation and emigration to forced deportation. Thousands of Jews were deported from Austria to occupied Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe, with many ending up in ghettos or concentration camps. By November 1942, only about 7,000 Jews remained in Austria, mostly due to emigration.
The Mauthausen concentration camp, established in 1938 after the German incorporation of Austria, became the main Nazi camp in the country. It was designated a special penal camp with a harsh regimen, where inmates were subjected to forced labour and other atrocities. During the war, the Nazis also established subcamps under Mauthausen near armaments factories throughout northern Austria, utilizing concentration camp prisoners for armaments production.
Austrians actively participated in the Nazi regime and its crimes. Approximately 800,000 Austrians volunteered for the Wehrmacht, and 150,000 joined the Nazi party's military wing, the Waffen-SS. Notable Austrians who played a role in Nazi crimes include Adolf Hitler, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Arthur Seyß-Inquart, Odilo Globocnik, and several Austrian gauleiters.
After World War II, the Allies agreed in the Declaration of Moscow that Austria would be regarded as the first victim of Nazi aggression, while also acknowledging its role in Nazi crimes. Denazification efforts in Austria aimed to address Austrian involvement in Nazism and hold war criminals accountable. People's Courts in several Austrian cities dealt with war crimes and Nazi Party membership, passing thousands of sentences. However, the denazification process has been criticized for doing little to raise awareness of Austrians' involvement in Nazi crimes, and Austria itself promoted the \"victim theory\" to distance itself from responsibility. It was only in the 1980s and 1990s that Austria began to collectively acknowledge its shared responsibility for the crimes committed during the Nazi occupation.
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Soviet occupation of Austria
Austria was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1938, with the support of the Austrian population. After the invasion, Austria was considered an integral part of the Third Reich, with 10% of the population joining the Nazi Party. During World War II, the Wehrmacht drafted more than 1.3 million Austrians, with 242,000 of them perishing.
In 1945, the Soviet Union, alongside the United Kingdom, the United States, and France, invaded and occupied Austria. The country was divided into four occupation zones, with Vienna being collectively administered by the Allied Control Council. The Soviet Union occupied Vienna's east side, and the central district was shared by all four Allies, with occupation forces changing every month. The Soviet occupation of Austria lasted from 1945 until 1955, and its status was a controversial subject during the Cold War.
The Soviet occupation of Austria was marked by systematic sexual violence against women and repression of civilians, which harmed the Red Army's reputation. In response, Moscow issued an order in September 1945, forbidding violent interrogations. The Soviets also assumed control over Austrian oil fields and brought in NKVD troops to "mop up" Vienna and seal the Czechoslovak border.
Despite the Soviet Union's significant control over Austria, their repressive apparatus initially acted with restraint, partly because Moscow did not have full control over the country and it was not a top geopolitical priority. The Soviet Union was more concerned with having friendly or communist regimes in neighboring countries like Romania and Poland, which shared borders with the Soviet Union.
The Austrian economy suffered during the occupation, with a disproportionate weakness in consumer goods production. The Marshall Plan, primarily intended for the Soviet zone, provided some financial aid and helped address food shortages. However, it was not universally popular, and certain industries, like agriculture, were negatively impacted.
Austria was finally accorded full independence on May 15, 1955, after promising perpetual neutrality, and the last occupation troops departed on October 25, 1955.
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Austria's independence from Nazi Germany
Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938, with the support of the majority of the Austrian population. This annexation, known as the Anschluss, saw Austria become an integral part of the Third Reich, with 10% of the population joining the Nazi Party. Austrians served as soldiers for Germany and were complicit in Nazi atrocities on the Eastern Front.
Despite this, there was also support for Austrian independence. Austrian chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg called for a referendum on Austrian independence, to be held on March 13, 1938. However, the Germans pressured Schuschnigg to cancel the referendum and resign. Hitler was ready to take full control of Austria and made a series of demands, including that Austrian foreign and military policies would be coordinated with Germany's. The Berchtesgaden Agreement, signed by Schuschnigg, undermined Austrian sovereignty and independence.
During World War II, Austria was occupied by the Allies and on April 27, 1945, it was declared independent from Nazi Germany, as per the Berlin Declaration for Germany on June 5, 1945. The Austrian State Treaty came into force on July 27, 1955, ending the occupation. Austria had been divided into four occupation zones, jointly occupied by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France. Vienna was also subdivided, with the central district collectively administered.
The Soviet Union's occupation of Austria was relatively restrained, partly because Austria was not a high geopolitical priority, being far from the Soviet Union's borders. The Austrian economy struggled in the post-war years, with a particular lack of consumer goods production. The Marshall Plan provided financial aid, but it was not universally popular, and some industries suffered as a result.
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Austria's contribution to the Nazi armed forces
Austria played a significant role in the Nazi war machine during World War II, with many Austrians actively contributing to the Nazi armed forces and the broader Nazi regime. Here is a detailed overview of Austria's contributions to the Nazi military:
Military Support for the Nazis
During World War II, approximately 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces. This included an estimated 800,000 Austrians who voluntarily joined the Wehrmacht, the German military, and an additional 150,000 who joined the Waffen-SS, the military wing of the Nazi Party. Austrians served loyally as soldiers and were complicit in Nazi atrocities on the Eastern Front. The Wehrmacht drafted more than 1.3 million Austrians between 1938 and 1945, and 242,000 of them never returned.
Integration of Austrian and German Armies
After the annexation of Austria (Anschluss) in 1938, Hitler's Austrian and German armies were fully integrated. Austrians also held prominent positions within the Nazi military and security apparatus. For example, Edmund Glaise-Horstenau, an Austrian officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, became a general in the German Wehrmacht during World War II. Additionally, Austrians comprised 13% of the SS, and 40% of the staff at death camps were Austrian.
Austrian Resistance and Collaboration
While a small minority of Austrians actively resisted Nazism, the vast majority participated in the Nazi war machine. Austrian resistance groups were often ideologically divided, and their efforts were not as effective as in some other occupied countries. However, it is important to note that some Austrians aided Jews and are recognized as Righteous Among the Nations.
Nazi Entry into Austria
The entry of Nazi Germany into Austria in 1938 was met with widespread enthusiasm by the Austrian population. German troops, led by Hitler, were greeted with Nazi salutes, flags, and flowers. The Austrian government ordered its military not to resist, and the annexation was proclaimed the following day. This enthusiastic welcome surprised both Nazis and non-Nazis, as most people had believed that a majority of Austrians opposed the annexation.
Nazi Collaboration in Austria
Many Austrians collaborated with the Nazis and participated in the Nazi administration. Austrians held key positions in the Nazi regime, including Arthur Seyß-Inquart, who organized or covered up several Nazi crimes in the Netherlands, and Odilo Globocnik, who oversaw the building of extermination camps in Poland and was responsible for the murder of about 2 million Polish Jews. Austrians also served in senior Nazi leadership positions and comprised 75% of concentration camp commanders.
In summary, Austria made significant contributions to the Nazi armed forces during World War II, with a large number of Austrians fighting for the Nazis, holding important positions in the military and security apparatus, and collaborating in the broader Nazi regime.
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Austria's involvement in the Holocaust
Austria played a significant role in the Holocaust, which saw the persecution, plunder, and murder of Jews by German and Austrian Nazis from 1938 to 1945. In March 1938, German troops entered Austria, receiving the enthusiastic support of most Austrians. Austria was then incorporated into Germany, and the annexation was approved retroactively in a manipulated plebiscite, with an indication that about 99% of Austrians wanted the union with Germany, also known as the "
Before World War II, Jews were a prominent part of Austria's economic and cultural life, with leading figures in various fields. In 1938, Austria's Jewish population was around 192,000, with the majority living in Vienna, a significant centre of Jewish culture, Zionism, and education. However, by December 1939, their numbers had decreased to 57,000 due to emigration. The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany triggered a wave of emigration among Jews, with approximately 117,000 fleeing the country between 1938 and 1940.
The Holocaust had a devastating impact on Austria's Jewish community. Systematic mass deportations from Vienna began in October 1941, with Jews assembled in designated centres before deportation. Approximately 35,000 Jews were deported from Vienna to ghettos in Eastern Europe, primarily to Minsk, Riga, Lodz, and the Lublin region of Poland. Many of those deported were murdered shortly after their arrival. By November 1942, only about 7,000 Jews remained in Austria, and the Viennese Jewish community was officially liquidated. The deportations continued until March 1945, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 60,000 to 65,000 Austrian Jews.
Austria's role in the Holocaust was a subject of debate and denial for many years. Initially, Austria portrayed itself as a victim of German Nazism rather than an active collaborator. However, in recent decades, Austrian governments have acknowledged the country's responsibility and taken steps to address this dark chapter in their history. The country has established institutions to remember and educate about the Holocaust, and there is now a stronger focus on Holocaust education in schools. Additionally, Austria has implemented restitution and compensation programs to address the wartime atrocities.
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Frequently asked questions
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, on June 28, 1914, set off a chain of events that led to World War I. The assassination intensified religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia, with Austrian authorities encouraging violence against Serb residents in Sarajevo. This resulted in the Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo, where Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two people and damaged several Serb-owned buildings.
Austria-Hungary, with encouragement from Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia, intending to start a war. Serbia's reply, which conceded to all terms except the involvement of Austro-Hungarian officials in the inquiry into the assassination, was rejected, and on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
Austria-Hungary wanted to take decisive action against Serbia, even though it knew this might lead to war with Russia, Serbia's supporter. Austria-Hungary was emboldened by the guarantee of German support and wanted to preserve its status as a great power.
Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia had a domino effect on Europe. Russia's support for Serbia brought France into the conflict, leading Germany to declare war on Russia and France. Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality and its growing dominance in Europe prompted Britain and its empire to join the war.
Austria-Hungary suffered severe casualties and eventually collapsed. The empire was forced to evacuate occupied territories and concede to the Allies' demands. The Hungarians sought independence from Austria, and the empire dissolved into multiple independent states, including Czechoslovakia, a unified Poland, and German Austria.
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