Ruqayyah Snyder
For most of history, there was no Germany or Austria as such. Before the 19th century, a collection of German states covered a geographical area of shifting boundaries in the middle of Europe, including parts of present-day Austria. From the late Middle Ages, Germans and Austrians were united under the Holy Roman Empire, an agglomeration of separate states, loosely joined under an Emperor or Kaiser. In the 19th century, Prussia's military victory over Austria allowed Prussia to gain hegemony over nearly all German states, leading to two German nations from 1871 to 1918. After World War II, the Allies considered Austria a liberated country and separated it from Germany, which became two countries, West Germany and East Germany. Austria became fully independent with the State Treaty in 1955.
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What You'll Learn
Austria's neutrality and independence
Austria and Germany were part of a collection of German states that covered a geographical area of shifting boundaries in the middle of Europe, including parts of present-day Austria. From the late Middle Ages, "Germans" and "Austrians" were united under the Holy Roman Empire, an agglomeration of separate states, loosely joined under an Emperor, or Kaiser. In its prime under the Habsburgs, the Empire spanned from northern Italy, over Slovenia, present-day Austria, and parts of Germany up to what is today western Poland.
After the Allies' triumph in World War II, Germany and Austria were held responsible for the war and were severely punished in the peace treaties that followed. Both empires were dismantled, creating a continent of new republics, often ill-prepared for self-government. Austria lost more than half of its territory and was left with only the mostly German-speaking area renamed the "Republic of German-Austria". Austria was divided and became fully independent only with the State Treaty in 1955. The Austrian democratic constitution was soon reinstated, and the country was able to freely elect a democratic government in late 1945. The separation from Germany formed a basis for Austria's new self-image.
Since then, neutrality has become a deeply ingrained element of Austrian identity. Austria engages in UN-led peacekeeping and humanitarian missions, such as KFOR and EUFOR, and participates in the European Union's European Sky Shield Initiative, a missile defense system funded through pooled resources. While Austria's membership in the European Union and its participation in certain military initiatives have been controversial due to its commitment to neutrality, the country has generally maintained its neutral stance. An opinion poll from March 2022 found that 76% of Austrians favored maintaining neutrality, while only 18% supported joining NATO.
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Austria's victim theory
The theory was a fundamental myth in Austrian society, bolstered by the language in the Allied Powers’ Joint Four-Nation Declaration from the Moscow Conference of October 1943, which included an explicit declaration on Austria and its annexation by Nazi Germany. The declaration stated that Austria was Hitler's first victim. This belief was also supported by the outcome of the war, which left Austria with only the mostly German-speaking area, renamed the "Republic of German-Austria". Additionally, the Allies saw Austria as a "liberated country", freed from Nazi oppression, which further reinforced the idea of Austria as a victim.
The victim theory assumed two forms: one for internal and one for foreign use. In foreign politics, Austrians continued to exploit the slogan of the Moscow Declaration, positioning themselves as victims of Hitler. However, inside Austria, the theory was transformed into a unifying myth that all Austrians, without exception, were victims. This included former Nazis, who were now portrayed as having been deluded and deceived by a foreign tempter. Soon after the Federal Elections of 1949, they were officially recognized as "victims" of denazification, along with those they had victimized.
In 1986, the election of Kurt Waldheim, a former Wehrmacht intelligence officer, as federal president, sparked a national debate on Austria's role in the Holocaust. This, along with powerful external pressure and internal political discussions, led Austrians to reconsider their attitude towards the past. Starting in 1988, the nation admitted its collective responsibility for the crimes committed during the Nazi occupation and officially abandoned the victim theory.
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Austria's democratic constitution
Austria has been governed by multiple constitutions throughout its history, including the Pillersdorf Constitution in 1848, the Stadion Constitution from 1848 to 1851, the October Diploma in 1860, and the February Patent from 1861 until 1865. The Federal Constitution of Austria (Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz or B-VG) is the current body of constitutional law in the Republic of Austria. It was first enacted on October 1, 1920, and has since undergone numerous amendments and revisions. The B-VG does not include a bill of rights, but provisions on civil liberties are found in various pieces of constitutional legislation.
The Republic of Austria is a democratic republic, as stated in Article 1 of the Federal Constitutional Act, and its laws are derived from the people. The Austrian Federal Constitution characterises the republic as a federation of nine autonomous federal states, each with its own constitution and a unicameral parliamentary democracy. The federal constitution further defines Austria as a bicameral parliamentary democracy with a near-complete separation of powers. The Austrian government structure is similar to that of larger federal republics such as Germany and the United States.
The Austrian Constitution is based on the principles of a republican, democratic, and federal state, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. The constitution was reinstated on May 1, 1945, after the fall of Nazi Germany, and the modifications made in 1929 remained in effect. The Constitutional Transition Act, passed by the Provisional State Government, brought the Federal Constitution back into force with the 1929 amendments. The first popular election of a president, provided for by the 1929 amendment, occurred after the death of Karl Renner, the first post-World War II president.
Austria's system of political parties is similar to Germany's, with two dominant parties in the centre-right and centre-left, two smaller populist parties, and the environmentalist Greens. There is also a small communist party and several fringe parties. The centre-right Austrian People's Party (Österreichische Volkspartei; ÖVP) is a successor to the Christian Social Party, while the centre-left Social Democratic Party of Austria (Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs; SPÖ) is a successor to the original Social Democratic Party founded in 1889.
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Prussia's military victory over Austria
Prussia, led by Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke, meticulously planned for the war. Von Moltke rapidly mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was gathering for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged with the Austrian forces at the Battle of Königgrätz on July 3. Despite Austrian numerical superiority, the Prussians demonstrated superior organization and élan, achieving a decisive victory with near-total casualties for the Austrian side.
The Prussian victory over Austria was influenced by several factors, including effective military strategies, alliances, and technological advantages. Prussia's modernized army discipline and superior organization played a crucial role in their success. Additionally, Prussia's alliance with Italy diverted some of Austria's forces to the south, weakening their main army. Furthermore, Prussia's breech-loading rifles, such as the breech-loading needle gun, offered a significant advantage over Austria's muzzle-loaders, which had to be loaded while standing, leaving soldiers vulnerable.
The consequences of Prussia's victory over Austria were far-reaching. It resulted in the exclusion of Austria from Germany and allowed Prussia to gain hegemony over nearly all German states. This led to the formation of two German nations from 1871 to 1918. The defeat of Austria also contributed to the rise of Prussian dominance in Germany, which may have played a role in the causes of the two world wars.
In conclusion, Prussia's military victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War was a pivotal event that reshaped the political landscape of Germany and Europe. The superior organization, strategic alliances, and technological advantages of the Prussian army led by Helmuth von Moltke played a crucial role in their victory. The outcome of this conflict had lasting implications for the relationship between Austria and Germany, setting the stage for their separate paths in the years to come.
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Austria's new self-image
The "victim theory" also served as a basis for Austria's new self-image as a sovereign nation. Austrian politicians embraced this theory with little public criticism, and it helped shape the national self-consciousness during the allied occupation and the subsequent establishment of the Second Austrian Republic. The founders of the Second Austrian Republic interpreted the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany as an act of military aggression, reinforcing the notion that Austrian statehood had been interrupted. This perspective contributed to the perception of Austria as a "liberated country" by the Allies, further distancing it from Nazi Germany.
Sport played a significant role in fostering national consciousness and boosting self-confidence in the early years of the Second Republic. Sporting events such as the Tour of Austria cycle race and the national football team's success in the 1954 World Cup contributed to a sense of national pride and unity. Additionally, the Austrian federal coat of arms, featuring an eagle with broken chains on its feet, symbolised liberation from the National Socialist dictatorship.
Austria's separation from Germany also led to the rebuilding of relations with West Germany, based on strong economic ties and mass tourism. Social-democratic chancellors Willy Brandt and Bruno Kreisky, close friends from their time in exile, promoted close cooperation between the two nations. Austria played a crucial role in helping citizens of East Germany escape to the West, particularly during the Pan-European Picnic in 1989, when the Hungarian-Austrian border was temporarily opened.
Overall, Austria's new self-image after its separation from Germany was characterised by a sense of national unity, a desire to distance itself from its Nazi past, and the fostering of strong international relationships, particularly with West Germany.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria and Germany were unified under the Holy Roman Empire from the late Middle Ages until the end of the 18th century. Following the invasion of German states by French armies, Prussia and Austria joined forces but were defeated by Napoleon. In the 1848 revolutions, a single greater Germany was possible, and the crown was offered to the King of Prussia, who rejected it. However, in 1866, Prussia gained military victory over Austria, leading to two German nations from 1871 to 1918. After World War II, the Allies separated Austria and Germany, forbidding continued unification, and Austria became fully independent with the State Treaty in 1955.
After World War II, the Allies considered Austria a "liberated country" from Nazi oppression, and Austria was divided and occupied by four Allied powers. While the occupation of Germany ended in 1949 with the creation of West and East Germany, Austria became fully independent in 1955.
The separation from Germany formed the basis for Austria's new self-image. Austrian politicians embraced the "victim theory," distancing themselves from their past unification with Germany and absolvING themselves of guilt from Nazism. Additionally, Austria's coat of arms features an eagle with broken chains, symbolizing liberation from the National Socialist dictatorship.
