Damon Mcknight
The complex history of Austria-Hungary and Russia's relationship is characterised by shifting alliances and shared imperialist ambitions, which ultimately led to both empires' demise in World War I. The roots of their rivalry can be traced back to the Napoleonic Wars, with Russia supporting Austria during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848-1849. However, during the Crimean War, Austria-Hungary's alignment with France, Britain and the Ottomans marked a turning point in their relationship, angering Tsar Nicholas I and straining ties. The two empires' competition for influence in the Balkans further exacerbated tensions, as they vied for control amidst the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 served as a catalyst for World War I, with Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, declaring war on Serbia, which was supported by Russia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for souring of relations | Austria-Hungary's hostile neutrality towards Russia during the Crimean War |
| Reason for souring of relations | Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany and Italy as part of the Triple Alliance |
| Reason for souring of relations | Russia's alliance with France as part of the Franco-Russian Alliance |
| Reason for souring of relations | Austria-Hungary's formal annexation of the Bosnia Vilayet in 1908 |
| Reason for souring of relations | Russia's support for Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 |
| Reason for souring of relations | Austria-Hungary's perception of Serbia as a threat to the existence of the Empire |
| Reason for souring of relations | Russia's desire to unite all Slavic-speaking peoples under the Tsar's leadership |
| Reason for souring of relations | Austria-Hungary's anti-Slavic policy |
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What You'll Learn
Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908
The annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 was a significant event that upset the fragile balance of power in the Balkans and had wide-ranging consequences for diplomatic relations in the region, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I.
The roots of this annexation can be traced back to the mid-1870s when violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans and the violent, repressive responses from the Ottoman Empire led to a series of agreements between Russia and Austria-Hungary. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control over Bosnia-Herzegovina in exchange for benevolent neutrality during the pending war with the Ottoman Empire. This agreement was further solidified in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, which allowed for the sole occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary, although the final disposition of the provinces was not specified.
In the years leading up to 1908, Austria-Hungary had been administering the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were still nominally under the control of the Ottoman Sultan. However, the decision to formally annex these provinces was motivated by several factors. Firstly, Austria-Hungary wanted to prevent the spread of the Young Turk Revolution, which had gained support from Bosnian Muslims and Serbs seeking autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, there were nationalist ambitions among the largely Slavic population of the provinces, as well as from pan-Slavic nationalists in nearby Serbia who sought to annex these territories.
The announcement of the annexation on October 6, 1908, was timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. This unilateral action sparked outrage and protestations from all the Great Powers, including Russia, as well as Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia, and Montenegro. The annexation was viewed as a violation of the Treaty of Berlin and a threat to the balance of power in the region. While Russia was forced to submit, it nonetheless felt humiliated and viewed Austria-Hungary's actions as overly aggressive.
The annexation caused unrest among the Muslim and Serb populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, who now found themselves ruled by a Christian emperor. It also permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbors, particularly Serbia, Italy, and Russia. The enmity between Austria-Hungary on one side and Serbia and Russia on the other would eventually contribute to the outbreak of World War I, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by Serb nationalists in 1914 serving as a key trigger.
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Russia's support for Serbia in 1914
On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian-backed terrorist. This assassination led to a crisis in southeast Europe, with Europe's leaders making a series of political, diplomatic, and military decisions that escalated the conflict. Austria-Hungary, with German encouragement, presented Serbia with an ultimatum and, when Serbia failed to fully comply, declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.
On 24 July 1914, the Serbian regent, Alexander, sent a telegram to Russian Tsar Nicholas II, appealing for assistance in dealing with Austria-Hungary's aggressive stance towards Serbia. Russia responded by beginning its military mobilisation against Austria-Hungary, which included ordering mobilisation in the four military districts facing Galicia, their shared front. This show of support for Serbia brought France into the conflict, as France was allied with Russia.
Russia's support for Serbia ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914, and France and Germany declared war on each other on 3 August. The conflict quickly escalated into a global war, with Britain and its empire joining on 4 August due to Germany's violation of Belgian neutrality and British fears of German domination in Europe.
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Austria's hostile neutrality during the Crimean War
Austria's neutrality during the Crimean War was influenced by a complex diplomatic situation. The country was expected to support Russia, owing to Tsar Nicholas I's assistance in suppressing the Hungarian Revolution in 1848. However, Austria's fear of Russian troops in the Balkans and Russian expansionism caused it to lean towards Britain and France, who also sought Austrian aid in containing Russia.
Austria's decision to remain neutral was driven by a desire to maintain friendly relations with all powers involved in the conflict and avoid offending either side. This stance, however, angered Nicholas I of Russia and strained Russo-Austrian relations. It also led to Austria's diplomatic isolation, leaving the country without allies in subsequent challenges.
During the war, Austria occupied the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which had been under Russian occupation since July 1853, as a neutral peacekeeping force. This occupation deprived Hungarian émigrés of an important base and allowed Austria to escort the two Romanian princes back to their countries. However, Austria's failure to make Russia withdraw from the Romanian principalities and its suspicion that Russia favoured independence movements in the Balkans turned it into the czar's political enemy.
The Crimean War marked a turning point in the relationship between Russia and Austria, with far-reaching consequences. Austria's neutrality contributed to its losses during Italian Unification and the Austro-Prussian War, including the loss of influence in most German-speaking lands. The war also ended a century-old friendship between the two countries and blocked Austria from keeping the Romanian principalities under its military control.
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Russia's invasion of Hungary to suppress the Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a significant event in the history of Hungary and the Cold War. It was a result of the Hungarian people's growing dissatisfaction with the communist regime imposed upon them after World War II.
During World War II, Hungary was part of the Axis powers, allied with Nazi Germany, and participated in the invasion of the USSR. By 1944, the Red Army had repelled the Hungarian and Axis forces and was advancing towards Hungary. The Hungarian government, fearing occupation by the Red Army, unsuccessfully attempted to seek an armistice with the Allies, leading to a short-lived puppet government established by the Germans. Soon after, in 1946, Hungary fell under Soviet control.
In the post-war years, the Soviet-backed hard-line communist Matyas Rakosi became the leader of Hungary. Rakosi's regime was characterized by a climate of fear, with the secret police (AVH or ÁVH) arresting anyone who spoke out against communism. The Hungarian people faced economic hardship due to the presence of thousands of Soviet troops and officials stationed in the country, and their culture and language were suppressed as Russian was imposed in schools and street signs.
In February 1956, the new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, denounced Stalin's crimes and human rights abuses in his "secret speech," signaling a shift towards de-Stalinization and a less hard-line approach in dealing with other governments. This speech had a significant impact in Hungary, and in June 1956, the Hungarian people began to protest against Rakosi's regime, leading to his replacement with Erno Gero. However, Gero was equally unpopular, and the Soviets agreed to the formation of a new government under the liberal reformer Imre Nagy.
Nagy's government introduced a series of reforms, including free elections, an impartial legal system, and the withdrawal of the Soviet army from Hungary. Additionally, Nagy declared Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, the Soviet bloc's military alliance. These moves were seen as a threat to Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe, and on October 23, 1956, the Hungarian government requested Soviet military intervention to suppress the growing anti-government protests.
In response, on November 4, 1956, Soviet tanks invaded Budapest, and street fighting broke out with the Hungarian revolutionaries. The Soviets' overwhelming military power ensured their victory, and the uprising was brutally crushed. The invasion resulted in thousands of Hungarians being arrested, tried, imprisoned, and executed. The Hungarian leader, Imre Nagy, was among those executed, and he was replaced by János Kádár, who consolidated Soviet control.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and its brutal suppression had significant consequences. It exposed the Western powers' unwillingness to intervene in Soviet bloc countries, despite their declarations of support for "liberation." The United States, for example, limited its response to public statements of sympathy, angering and frustrating many Hungarians who had expected more decisive action. The revolution also led to a wave of refugees fleeing Hungary, with approximately 30,000 Hungarian refugees granted entry into the United States.
The Soviet Union's apology for its actions during the Hungarian Revolution came much later, in 1991, with the dismemberment of the Soviet Union and the rise of Russia as an independent state. Boris Yeltsin, the Russian leader, personally apologized to the Hungarian Parliament in 1992, marking a symbolic step towards reconciliation between the two nations.
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Austria-Hungary's anti-Slavic policy
The Eastern Question, regarding the fate of the Ottoman Empire, was a significant source of tension between the two empires. Russia positioned itself as the protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians, which clashed with Austria-Hungary's vision of a multi-ethnic and religiously diverse empire under its control. Count Gyula Andrássy, the Hungarian Foreign Minister from 1871 to 1879, made opposing Russian expansion in the Balkans a central tenet of his policy.
The Crimean War marked a turning point in Austro-Russian relations. During this conflict, Austria-Hungary maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, supporting the Anglo-French coalition. This stance angered Tsar Nicholas I and strained relations between the two powers. Despite Russia being punished by the Treaty of Paris, Austria-Hungary ultimately lost the most from the Crimean War despite its limited involvement.
In the aftermath of the Crimean War, Austria-Hungary found itself diplomatically isolated and was evicted from the Italian and German states with Russian neutrality. This contributed to the Austrian defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and a loss of influence in German-speaking lands. As a result, the Habsburgs granted Hungarian demands for autonomy, leading to the establishment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The assassination of the pro-Austrian King Alexander I of Serbia in 1903 further deteriorated relations. The new pro-Russian King Peter I shifted Serbia closer to Russia, creating a bitter enmity between Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia. Additionally, Austria-Hungary's formal annexation of the Bosnia Vilayet in 1908 was viewed as a violation of the Treaty of Berlin and dismayed Russia and other Great Powers.
Language was also a contentious issue within Austro-Hungarian politics. The Austrian Prime Minister, Count Kasimir Felix Badeni, granted Czech equal status with German in the internal government of Bohemia, sparking a crisis due to nationalist German agitation. Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the region, leading to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, intensifying ethnic hostilities and ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I.
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Frequently asked questions
Austria-Hungary and Russia had been allies for decades, but their relationship soured due to several factors. One major reason was their competing interests in the Balkans, as both sought to increase their influence in the region at the expense of the declining Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 and the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists in 1914 further strained relations, ultimately leading to World War I.
The Eastern Question referred to the declining Ottoman Empire and what the European powers should do about it. Austria-Hungary and Russia, in particular, had competing interests in the Balkans, with Russia seeing itself as the protector of Slavic peoples in the region. This led to tensions and was a significant source of conflict between the two empires.
During the Crimean War, Austria-Hungary maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia, supporting the Anglo-French coalition. This angered Tsar Nicholas I and strained relations between the two powers, despite Russia having invaded Hungary to support the Habsburgs during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
Yes, they had a close relationship during and after the Napoleonic Wars. Russia also supported Austria during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. From 1873 to 1887, they were allies with the German Empire in the League of Three Emperors, and they concluded the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, allowing Austria-Hungary to occupy the Bosnia Vilayet.
World War I further deteriorated relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, as they found themselves on opposing sides. The conflict ultimately led to the collapse of both the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires, along with the German Empire, reshaping the world order.
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