Damon Mcknight
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 to 1918. It was a military and diplomatic alliance consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch, who was titled both the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary. The empire's collapse was catalysed by World War I, with the October 1917 Revolution and Wilsonian peace pronouncements encouraging socialism and nationalism among the peoples of the empire. The defeat of Austria-Hungary in the war, combined with the rise of nationalism and the desire for self-determination, led to the empire's dissolution and the formation of new independent states such as Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary.
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What You'll Learn
The Austro-Hungarian Empire's military losses and territorial concessions
The Austro-Hungarian Empire suffered significant military losses during World War I, with estimates of their total deaths ranging from 120,000 to 1,016,000. The latter figure includes those who were missing in action, presumed dead, or taken as prisoners of war. The Austro-Hungarian army mobilised around 8 million soldiers, and the death toll among this group was about 12.7%. The highest death rates were caused by large epidemics of cholera, typhoid, and smallpox, against which other armies vaccinated their troops. The Austro-Hungarian forces also suffered territorial concessions as a result of the war.
The armistice signed between the Allies and Austria-Hungary on November 3, 1918, required the evacuation of all territory occupied since August 1914, including South Tirol, Tarvisio, the Isonzo Valley, Gorizia, Trieste, Istria, western Carniola, and Dalmatia. The treaty also stipulated that all German forces were to be expelled from Austria-Hungary within 15 days or interned, and the Allies were given possession of most of the empire's warships. These territorial losses, along with the human toll of the war, severely weakened the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The empire was further fragmented by the actions of its constituent nations. On October 24, 1918, a Hungarian National Council was established in Budapest, advocating for peace and separation from Austria. On October 28, the Czechoslovak committee in Prague declared an independent state, and a similar Polish committee was formed in Kraków, advocating for the incorporation of Austrian territories into a unified Poland. The Croatians in Zagreb also declared their independence, intending to form a national state of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs. These declarations of independence, along with the military and territorial losses, contributed to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The formal collapse of the empire was marked by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria and the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, which established the new borders of the two nations. The treaties reduced Austria and Hungary to small, landlocked states, and the previously rapid economic growth of the imperial territories stalled due to the new borders becoming major economic barriers. Hungary, in particular, suffered a severe disruption, losing 72% of its territory, 64% of its population, and most of its natural resources. The remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states, further fragmenting the former empire.
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The rise of nationalism and socialism
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multinational constitutional monarchy in Central Europe, which existed between 1867 and 1918. It was a union between the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire (Cisleithania) and the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania). The union was led by a single monarch, who was titled both the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary.
The rise of nationalism in the years preceding World War One threatened the stability of the empire. The empire was spread across a large swathe of central and eastern Europe, encompassing the modern-day states of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, and parts of present-day Poland, Romania, Italy, Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, and Montenegro. With so many diverse ethnic groups, the notion of a shared national identity was always going to be a challenge. As World War One approached, nationalist voices began to insist that individuals should solely identify with their ethnic group, rather than with the empire. For example, Poles were encouraged to want an independent Poland, and Serbs, Croats, Czechs, and Slovaks were encouraged to demand independence.
Nationalism was not the only ideology threatening the unity of the empire; socialism was also on the rise. The October 1917 Revolution encouraged socialism among all peoples of the empire. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state by way of the 1917 Corfu Declaration. The Slavs had begun disregarding orders from Budapest and acting as provisional governments of independent countries. The Czechoslovaks in Prague and the South Slavs in Zagreb had already set up organs ready to take power.
In addition to the rise of nationalism and socialism, the duality of the Habsburg monarchy also contributed to the split of Austria-Hungary. While the Austrian parliament was suspended in March 1914 and was not reconvened for three years, the Hungarian parliament in Budapest continued its sessions and proved to be less amenable to dictation from the military. This duality, combined with the rise of nationalism and socialism, ultimately led to the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
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The duality of the Habsburg monarchy
The Habsburg monarchy, also known as the Habsburg Empire or the Austrian Monarchy, was a vast collection of lands ruled by the House of Habsburg. The history of the Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. Over time, the Habsburgs accumulated more and more possessions and titles, ruling over a diverse array of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties, and other realms.
The dual nature of the Habsburg monarchy also extended beyond Austria and Hungary. Other regions, such as the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, were autonomous under the Hungarian crown, adding complexity to the dual structure. Additionally, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under the joint military and civilian rule of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in 1878 before being fully annexed in 1908, further expanding the multi-national character of the monarchy.
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The Lansing Note and the Corfu Declaration
The Lansing Note was a statement issued by the US Secretary of State, Robert Lansing, on 4 December 1918, to the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister, Baron István Burián von Rajecz. The note effectively ended the alliance between the United States and Austria-Hungary, which had been formed by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In the note, Lansing informed Baron István that the US government had received information indicating that Austria-Hungary was preparing to conclude a separate peace with the Allies. Lansing stated that the US could not accept such a peace and that it would continue the war until the defeat of Germany and her allies. This effectively ended the alliance between the two countries and contributed to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after the war.
The Corfu Declaration, on the other hand, was an agreement signed on 20 July 1917, between the prime minister of Serbia, Nikola Pašić, and the president of the Yugoslav Committee, Ante Trumbić. The declaration was concluded on the Greek island of Corfu, where the Serbian government had taken refuge after Serbia was occupied by combined Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian forces in late 1915.
The purpose of the Corfu Declaration was to establish a method for unifying a future common state of the South Slavs living in Serbia, Montenegro, and Austria-Hungary after World War I. The declaration called for the establishment of a unified Yugoslav state, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, under the Karađorđević dynasty. It envisioned a constitutional monarchy with guaranteed universal male suffrage, territorial indivisibility, religious freedom, and full legal equality for the three national denominations.
Despite these stated principles, the Corfu Declaration did not result in a lasting agreement between the Serbian government and the Yugoslav Committee. Differences of opinion between Pašić and Trumbić became apparent, particularly regarding the system of government for the proposed state. Pašić advocated for a centralist government, while Trumbić argued for a federal state with significant powers devolved to the federal units and the safeguarding of national rights. No consensus was reached, and the Declaration left it to the future Constituent Assembly to decide on the system of government by an unspecified qualified majority.
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The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon
The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on 10 September 1919, was an agreement between the victorious Allies of World War I and the new Republic of Austria (also known as German-Austria). The treaty formally recognised the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and established the independence of several nations, including Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs. It also contained the Covenant of the League of Nations, which the United States did not ratify, leading to the US-Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921.
The treaty addressed territorial changes, with Italy acquiring South Tyrol, the Trentino province, and the Austrian Littoral, among other regions. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes received the Duchy of Carniola, Lower Styria, and parts of Carinthia, while Bosnia and Herzegovina were also given to this kingdom. The treaty restricted Austria's independence, preventing it from entering into political or economic unions without the agreement of the League of Nations, and requiring a name change from German-Austria to Austria. These provisions impacted Austria's economic growth and later fuelled support for Anschluss with Nazi Germany.
The Treaty of Trianon, signed in June 1920, was an agreement between the Allies and Hungary, finalising the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This treaty had a significant impact on Hungary, resulting in the loss of 72% of its territory, 64% of its population, and a substantial portion of its natural resources. The Entente powers tended to favour the newly independent nation-states when deciding on territorial boundaries, allowing them to claim regions with significant Hungarian-speaking populations.
The treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and Trianon played a crucial role in reshaping the borders of Central Europe, reducing Austria and Hungary to small, landlocked states. They reflected the rise of nationalism and socialism among the peoples of the former Habsburg Monarchy, leading to the formation of independent states and the redrawing of national boundaries. These treaties had far-reaching political and economic consequences, impacting the economic growth and stability of the region in the post-World War I era.
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Frequently asked questions
The official name of the state was Austria-Hungary, but it was also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy, or the Habsburg Monarchy.
The emperor, Franz Joseph, held the title of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. He was the single monarch of the two sovereign states, but each state had its own prime minister and executive government.
The collapse of Austria-Hungary was a rapid process that took place in October 1918. On October 24, a Hungarian National Council was set up in Budapest, calling for peace and independence from Austria. On October 28, the Czechoslovak committee in Prague declared an independent state, and similar committees were formed in other regions. On October 30, German members of the Reichsrat in Vienna proclaimed an independent state of German Austria.
World War I had devastating consequences for Austria-Hungary, with over one million deaths among the troops raised in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Empire suffered repeated defeats, and by the end of the war, it had collapsed. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, reducing them to small, landlocked states with significant territorial and population losses, especially for Hungary.
The split between Austria and Hungary was driven by several factors. Firstly, there was a widening gap between Hungarian and Austrian interests, with growing nationalism and separatism in both states. Additionally, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had been weakened by its overcommitment to upholding its role as a great power, as pledged at the 1815 Congress of Vienna. World War I further catalysed the collapse, with the October 1917 Revolution and Wilsonian peace pronouncements encouraging socialism and nationalism among the peoples of the monarchy.
