The Shifting Sands Of War: Unraveling The Complexities Of Afghanistan's Battlefields

The War in Afghanistan was an armed conflict that lasted from 2001 to 2021. It was a direct response to the September 11 attacks, which were plotted by al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. The war began when an international military coalition led by the United States launched an invasion of Afghanistan, declaring Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the war on terror. The Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate was toppled and the Islamic Republic was established three years later. The Taliban and its allies were expelled from major population centres by US-led forces, but Bin Laden relocated to neighbouring Pakistan. The conflict officially ended with the 2021 Taliban offensive, which overthrew the Islamic Republic and re-established the Islamic Emirate.

The war was the longest in US military history, surpassing the Vietnam War by approximately six months. It was fought across the country's varied geography, from the central highlands to the northern plains and the southwestern plateau. The Taliban's guerrilla tactics, safe havens in Pakistan, and support from other Islamist groups allowed them to regroup and launch a resurgence in 2003, waging an insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces.

The US-led coalition remained in Afghanistan, forming a security mission (ISAF) sanctioned by the United Nations, with the goal of creating a new democratic authority in the country. A new Afghan Interim Administration was established, and international rebuilding efforts were launched. However, the Taliban reorganised under their founder, Mullah Omar, and began a widespread insurgency. Insurgents from the Taliban and other Islamist groups waged asymmetric warfare, fighting with guerrilla warfare in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets, and reprisals against perceived Afghan collaborators.

The war resulted in high civilian casualties, with the United Nations documenting a record high of 10,993 civilian casualties in 2018. Overall, the war killed an estimated 176,000-212,000+ people, including 46,319 civilians. The war displaced millions, with 2.6 million Afghans remaining refugees by the time the Taliban returned to power in 2021, and another 4 million internally displaced.

The September 11 attacks and the U.S.-British invasion

The September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001 were the deadliest terrorist assault in US history. The attacks, which killed 2,977 people, were carried out by 19 al-Qaeda members, most of whom were Saudi nationals.

The attacks were the culmination of nearly a decade of efforts by Osama bin Laden, motivated by radical Islamist ideology, to kill American soldiers and civilians.

In the aftermath of the attacks, the administration of US President George W. Bush coalesced around a strategy of first ousting the Taliban from Afghanistan and dismantling al-Qaeda. Bush demanded that the Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar "deliver to [the] United States authorities all the leaders of al-Qaeda who hide in your land". When Omar refused, US officials began implementing a plan for war.

The joint US and UK invasion of Afghanistan in late 2001 was preceded by over two decades of war in the country. On 7 October 2001, US and UK forces began air strikes against targets in Afghanistan, marking the public start of Operation Enduring Freedom. In late October, anti-Taliban forces began to overtake a series of towns formerly held by the Taliban. The forces worked with US assistance, but they defied US wishes when, on 13 November, they marched into Kabul as the Taliban retreated without a fight.

Kandahar, the largest city in southern Afghanistan and the Taliban's spiritual home, fell on 6 December, marking the end of Taliban power. As the Taliban leadership retreated into Afghanistan's rural areas and across the border to Pakistan, anti-Taliban figures convened at a United Nations (UN)-sponsored conference in Bonn, Germany. With behind-the-scenes maneuvering by the US, Hamid Karzai was selected to lead the country on an interim basis.

The Battle of Tora Bora

In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the US launched Operation Enduring Freedom. To achieve its goals, the US military joined forces with the Northern Alliance, a group of rebels who had long been waging a guerrilla war against the Taliban. Through a combination of airstrikes and ground operations, the US and its allies quickly gained the upper hand, seizing control of key Taliban strongholds.

The Tora Bora cave complex was believed to be al-Qaeda's headquarters and bin Laden's location at the time. The US and its allies launched an assault on Tora Bora, with US Special Forces, Joint Special Operations Command soldiers, and a detachment of CIA operatives joining forces with Afghan tribal militias. The US also turned to its NATO allies for military assistance, with the British Special Boat Service (SBS) and the German Kommando Spezialkrafte (KSK) contributing operators for the battle.

The battle was challenging due to the difficult terrain and the need to rely on local Afghan militias, who were not always reliable or fully committed to the mission. The Afghan militias often retreated at night to break their Ramadan fasts, sacrificing the ground they had gained during the day. There was also distrust and rivalry between the two main Afghan commanders, Hazrat Ali and Mohammed Zaman, which further hindered the operation.

Despite these challenges, the US and its allies were able to gain control of the Tora Bora cave complex by 17 December 2001. However, bin Laden had escaped, and it is believed that he crossed the border into Pakistan with the help of local tribes. The failure to capture bin Laden at Tora Bora prolonged the war in Afghanistan and allowed al-Qaeda to regroup and regain strength.

The Iraq War

The conflict began on March 20, 2003, when the US, joined by the United Kingdom, Australia, and Poland, launched a "shock and awe" bombing campaign. Shortly following the bombing campaign, US-led forces launched a ground invasion of Iraq. Iraqi forces were quickly overwhelmed as coalition forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Ba'athist government; Saddam Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year and executed three years later.

The power vacuum following Saddam's demise, and mismanagement by the Coalition Provisional Authority, led to widespread civil war between Shias and Sunnis, as well as a lengthy insurgency against coalition forces. The United States responded with a build-up of 170,000 troops in 2007. This build-up gave greater control to Iraq's government and military while also giving the United States a greater say in the postwar reconstruction of Iraq. In 2008, President Bush agreed to a withdrawal of all US combat troops from Iraq. The withdrawal was completed under Barack Obama in December 2011.

The war killed an estimated 150,000 to 1,033,000 people, including more than 100,000 civilians. Most died during the initial insurgency and civil conflicts. The 2013–2017 War in Iraq, which is considered a domino effect of the invasion and occupation, caused at least 155,000 deaths and internally displaced more than 3.3 million Iraqis.

The Doha Agreement

The agreement did not include an official ceasefire, and after a brief reduction in violence, the Taliban resumed attacks on Afghan security forces and civilians. Direct talks between the Afghan government and the Taliban were delayed and ultimately made little progress. Violence continued in Afghanistan as the US increased airstrikes and raids targeting the Taliban, who, in turn, attacked Afghan government targets and made territorial gains.

The US completed its withdrawal from Afghanistan on August 30, 2021, and the Taliban took control of the country by force.

The Taliban offensive

The Taliban's campaign began as US and coalition forces began their withdrawal from Afghanistan. The Taliban took advantage of the situation and launched a final offensive to win back control of the country. The group's lightning offensive started from the southern province of Kandahar and, within ten days, the Taliban had seized control of the country.

The Taliban's offensive resulted in a massive humanitarian crisis, with thousands of terrified Afghans and foreigners rushing to Kabul airport in a frenzied attempt to flee the country. The offensive also led to a surge in civilian casualties, with the United Nations documenting a record-high number of civilian casualties in 2021.

The Taliban's victory has brought a measure of unfamiliar calm to Afghanistan, with a significant drop in violence. However, the group's harsh rule, including the imposition of restrictive social policies and the rollback of women's rights, has drawn widespread criticism. The Taliban's return to power has also led to a severe economic and humanitarian crisis in the country, with millions of Afghans facing food insecurity and a lack of access to basic services.

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