Lyla Lindsey
Italy's freedom from Austrian rule was a gradual process, with several significant events contributing to its independence. The country had been under Austrian control since the fall of Napoleon in 1814-1815, when the Congress of Vienna determined that parts of Italy would be ruled by the Austrian Empire. This decision sparked revolutionary fervour across Italy, leading to the First Italian War of Independence in 1848. While this war ultimately failed, it inspired further resistance and revolutionary movements. The Italian National Society, founded in 1857, played a crucial role in advocating for unification and independence. Italy's acquisition of Venetia in 1866, following the Third Italian War of Independence, marked a significant step towards unification. However, it wasn't until after World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 that Italy fully gained its freedom from Austria-Hungary and achieved the unification it had long fought for.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Italy's proclamation of unification | 17 March |
| Date Italy gained freedom from Austria | 1920 |
| Date Italy gained freedom from Austrian rule in some regions | 1866 |
| Date of the First Italian War of Independence | 1848 |
| Date of the Third Italian War of Independence | 1866 |
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What You'll Learn
The Italian War of Independence
The Austrian forces retreated into the Quadrilateral fortresses of Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnago, which formed the defensive nucleus of the Habsburg army in Lombardy-Venetia. The Italian forces gathered to the east, west, and south of the fortresses, with the Austrians only able to maintain a link to the motherland via a corridor to the north. However, the Pope soon abandoned the war, not wanting to antagonise Catholic Austria, and the King of the Two Sicilies also withdrew, having never been enthusiastic about constitutional rule. With rebellions elsewhere in the Austrian Empire under control, reinforcements were sent to Italy and the region was gradually retaken. Venice and Milan fell in the summer of 1849, and Piedmont-Sardinia surrendered. The First Italian War of Independence was lost, but it inspired further efforts for Italian unification.
The Second Italian War of Independence was fought between the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and Austria. It began in 1859 after Sardinia mobilised its army on 9 March, and Austria issued an ultimatum demanding demobilisation, which was ignored. France supported Piedmont-Sardinia in exchange for Nice and Savoy, and the first French troops entered Piedmont on 25 April, with France declaring war on Austria on 3 May. Napoleon III participated in the war and showed up on the battlefield, which successfully motivated the French people. The Sardinian Army had about 70,000 soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and 90 guns, while the Austrian Army fielded more men with 220,000 soldiers, 824 guns, and 22,000 horsemen. The Italian volunteers of Giuseppe Garibaldi's Hunters of the Alps defeated the Austrians at Varese, but the Austrians won a victory at the Battle of Treponti, and the two armies met accidentally around Solferino, leading to a series of battles. The entire Austrian army eventually retreated after the breakthrough at Solferino and withdrew back into the Quadrilateral.
The Third Italian War of Independence was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Austrian Empire from June to August 1866, paralleling the Austro-Prussian War. Italy signed a military alliance with Prussia through the mediation of French Emperor Napoleon III, and Italian armies, led by General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora, engaged the Austrians on the southern front. The Italian forces were divided into two armies, one deployed in Lombardy and the other in Romagna. La Marmora was defeated at the Battle of Custoza and retreated back across the Mincio River, while the other Italian army conducted shows of force and failed to defeat the Austrians. However, the course of the war turned in Italy's favour due to Prussian victories in Bohemia, and the Austrians were compelled to redeploy their forces to Vienna. On 26 July, an Italian force defeated an Austrian force guarding the crossing of the Torre River, reaching Romans d'Isonzo at the Battle of Versa. With the cessation of Austro-Prussian hostilities, the Armistice of Nikolsburg ended the conflict, provided that Italy obtained Venetia, which was later annexed by Italy after a plebiscite. Italy's acquisition of this territory represented a major step in the Unification of Italy.
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The First Italian War of Independence
The Italian peninsula was a patchwork of independent kingdoms and republics until 1815, when the Congress of Vienna restored the pre-Napoleonic governments. Italy was then largely controlled by the Austrian Empire, which directly ruled the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia and indirectly controlled the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany.
As a result of the revolts of Milan and Venice, the Austrians had to retreat into the Quadrilateral fortresses (Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnago), which formed the defensive nucleus of the Habsburg army in Lombardy–Venetia. Forces of volunteers from the Italian states gathered to the east, west, and south of the Quadrilateral to fight against the Austrians, who could only maintain links to the motherland via a corridor to the north, through the Adige valley on the eastern coast of Lake Garda.
The Battle of Novara was the last and bloodiest battle of the First Italian War of Independence. On the Piedmontese side, there were 578 dead, 1,405 wounded, and 409 fled or were captured. On the Austrian side, 410 were dead, 1,850 wounded, and 963 were captured or fled. Following this defeat, Charles Albert asked the Austrians on what terms he could seek an armistice, and the war ended on 23 March 1849.
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The Third Italian War of Independence
Italy's freedom from Austria was a gradual process that spanned several decades and involved multiple conflicts, including the Third Italian War of Independence.
The war unfolded against the backdrop of rising tensions between Austria and Prussia over the German Question, which centred on the unification of Germany and the role of Austria within it. Italy, seeking to capitalise on Prussia's rivalry with Austria, formed an alliance with Prussia in April 1866 through the mediation of French Emperor Napoleon III. This alliance proved advantageous for Italy's aspirations.
As the war commenced, Italy's military forces were divided into two armies, each with distinct objectives. One army, under the leadership of La Marmora, focused on the western front, targeting the formidable Austrian fortress in Lombardy, west of the Mincio River. The other army, commanded by General Enrico Cialdini, operated in Romagna, south of the Po River, with Mantua and Rovigo as their primary objectives.
The initial Italian offensive, however, faced setbacks. La Marmora's forces suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Custoza on June 24, forcing them to retreat across the Mincio River. Meanwhile, Cialdini adopted a more cautious approach, conducting shows of force without engaging in full-scale offensives. He failed to besiege the Austrian fortress at Borgoforte, south of the Po River.
Despite these early challenges, the tide turned in Italy's favour due to Prussian victories in Bohemia, notably the decisive Battle of Königgrätz on July 3. The Austrians were compelled to redeploy their forces, weakening their position in Italy. The Italian government received news of mediation efforts by Napoleon III, which ultimately led to a settlement.
The war concluded with Austria conceding the region of Venetia to France, which was subsequently annexed by Italy after a plebiscite. This acquisition of wealthy and populous territory represented a significant advancement in Italy's unification process, bolstering the country's determination for full national unity. The Third Italian War of Independence thus played a pivotal role in Italy's journey towards independence and the realisation of a unified Italian nation-state.
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The Austrian Empire's control of Italy
The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, ruled by the Austrian Habsburg Emperor, was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1866. It included the major cities of Milan and Venice and was created by the Congress of Vienna in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice, which had collapsed after the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy's proclamation in 1805. The local administration in Lombardy-Venetia was predominantly Italian, with Italian-speaking civil servants, but the highest governorships were reserved for Austrian aristocrats, and the military and police were controlled by German speakers from other parts of the Empire.
Austrian control over northern Italy faced several challenges and uprisings, particularly during the Revolutions of 1820 and 1830. In 1820, a secret organization called I Federati ("The Confederates"), led by the Milanese nobleman Federico Confalonieri, was discovered and suppressed by the Austrian authorities. In 1826, the Duke of Modena, Francis IV, who aspired to become king of northern Italy, declared that he would not oppose those who supported the unification of Italy. This encouraged revolutionaries to begin organizing, and in 1830, they forced the Duke to flee with the help of Austrian troops.
The revolutionary fervour of 1848 spread across Europe and turned into a full-blown War of Independence in Italy. King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war on Austria in 1848, and Austrian forces had to retreat to their fortresses in the Quadrilateral (Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, and Legnago). However, they eventually regained control and entered Milan and Venice in 1849, restoring Austrian rule.
It was not until the Italian Wars of Independence in the mid-19th century that Italy began to gain its freedom from Austria. After the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was dissolved in 1866 when its remaining territory was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy following the Third Italian War of Independence. Finally, after World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920, Italy gained additional territories formerly controlled by Austria-Hungary, including Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and the cities of Zara and Pola.
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Italian unification after World War I
Italy's unification in the 19th century was a political and social movement that ended with the annexation of various states of the Italian peninsula and its outlying islands to the Kingdom of Sardinia, resulting in the creation of the Kingdom of Italy. The unification process was inspired by the rebellions in the 1820s and 1830s against the outcome of the Congress of Vienna, which had left Italy largely controlled by the Austrian Empire.
The Italian tricolour became the symbol of the patriotic ferments that began to spread in Italy, uniting all the efforts of the Italian people towards freedom and independence. The tricolour waved for the first time in the history of the Risorgimento on 11 March 1821 in Alessandria during the revolutions of the 1820s. An important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril, who served as vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic from 1802 to 1805.
The Revolutions of 1848 played a crucial role in the unification process. In March 1848, King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war on Austria, marking the beginning of the First Italian War of Independence. The Austrian forces gradually regained control, and by the summer of 1849, Venice and Milan had fallen, and Piedmont-Sardinia surrendered. Despite this setback, the spirit of the Italian people remained unbroken, and they continued to strive for freedom and unity.
During the First World War, Italy fought against the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary, and emerged victorious. The Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 finalised Italy's acquisition of territories such as Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and the cities of Zara and Pola. This period after World War I is considered by some historians as the continuation of the Risorgimento, with Italy finally achieving its long-sought unification.
However, it is worth noting that even after the Capture of Rome in 1871, which marked the final event of the unification process, many ethnic Italian speakers remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy. This situation gave rise to Italian irredentism, a nationalist movement advocating the annexation of territories with a majority Italian population, such as Trentino, Trieste, and Dalmatia. Italian irredentism gained momentum during World War I but ultimately faded after World War II, with the defeat of Fascism and the end of the Monarchy of the House of Savoy.
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Frequently asked questions
Italy's independence from Austria was a gradual process. The first Italian War of Independence began in 1848, but Italy did not gain full independence until the Unification of Italy between 1859 and 1870.
The First Italian War of Independence was sparked by the revolutions of 1848. King Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war on Austria on 23 March 1848. Despite initial successes, the Italian troops were eventually defeated by Austrian forces in 1849.
The Kingdom of Sardinia, led by King Charles Albert, was the only Italian state with a native monarch during the First Italian War of Independence. It played a crucial role by declaring war on Austria and marching into its lands. However, the Sardinian army was poorly trained and suffered a major defeat at the hands of Austrian troops in 1849.
The Unification of Italy was a complex process that involved several wars of independence, revolutionary movements, and political negotiations. The Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 resulted in Austria conceding the region of Venetia to France, which was later annexed by Italy. Italy also gained territories like Trieste, Gorizia, and Istria after World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920.
