Cabinda: Angola's Strategic Oil-Rich Exclave

Cabinda is a valuable exclave of Angola due to its oil reserves. The small province is responsible for 60% of the country's oil production, with offshore oil fields discovered in 1967 and 1970. Oil exports from the province are worth approximately $100,000 per annum for every Cabindan, and the industry accounts for 95% of exports in Africa's second-largest oil-producing country. However, despite its significant contribution to the national economy, the people of Cabinda claim they have not benefited from the revenue generated by the commodity. The issue of oil has also been at the heart of the Cabindan struggle for independence, with the region experiencing rebellions and a low-intensity guerrilla war since the 1970s.

Oil production

Oil was discovered off the coast of Cabinda in 1967, and the region now provides around two-thirds of Angola's oil revenue, which accounts for 95% of the country's exports. In 2014, Cabinda produced 700,000 barrels of crude oil per day, with conservative estimates putting the figure at closer to 900,000 barrels per day. This has made the exclave incredibly valuable to Angola, with oil exports from the province worth an estimated US$100,000 per annum for every Cabindan.

Despite this, Cabinda remains one of the poorest provinces in Angola. While an agreement in 1996 stipulated that 10% of Cabinda’s taxes on oil revenues would be returned to the province, many residents feel that these revenues do not benefit the population as a whole, largely due to corruption. The private sector, particularly the oil industry, has been affected by the secessionist conflict in the region.

The oil fields in Cabinda are located offshore, in water depths of 50 to 75 metres. Oil was discovered in the Barremian deposits in 1971, and in the Cenomanian section in 1979. There are four offshore oil fields in the greater Takula area: Wamba, Takula, Numbi, and Vuko, which produce from the Upper Cretaceous Cenomanian Vermelha sandstone deposited in the coastal environment.

Cabinda Oil is associated with Sonangol, Agip Angola Lda (41%), Chevron (39.2%), TotalEnergies (10%), and Eni (9.8%).

Historical independence

The historical independence of Cabinda is a complex issue that dates back to the 19th century and involves the interplay of colonial powers, local kingdoms, and shifting geopolitical boundaries. Here is a detailed account of Cabinda's historical independence and its subsequent integration into Angola.

The Pre-Colonial Era

Before the arrival of European colonial powers, the territory of Cabinda was divided into three kingdoms: N'Goyo, Loango, and Kakongo. These kingdoms had their own distinct cultures and languages, and they were under the control of the powerful Manikongo, the King of the Bakongo tribe. The Manikongo's influence extended across a vast region, including what is now northern Angola and parts of the neighbouring countries.

Portuguese Colonial Rule

In the mid-15th century, Portuguese explorers made contact with the Manikongo and established trading posts, logging camps, and small palm oil processing factories in the region. Over time, other European powers, including the Dutch and English, also established a presence in the area. This led to conflicts between the rival colonial powers.

In 1885, Portugal sought to solidify its claim over the region and signed the Treaty of Simulambuco with the chiefs of Kakongo, Loanga, and Ngoyo. This treaty established Cabinda, then known as Portuguese Congo, as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire, separate from Portuguese West Africa (Angola). It is important to note that this treaty forms the basis of Cabindan independence movements' arguments, as it recognised the local princes and guaranteed the integrity of their territories.

Integration with Angola

Despite the provisions of the Treaty of Simulambuco, Portugal gradually merged the administration of Cabinda with that of Angola. In 1956, the governance of Cabinda was transferred to the governor-general of Angola. However, it is important to highlight that even within the Portuguese colonial framework, Cabinda experienced fluctuations between relative autonomy and integration with Angola.

The Struggle for Independence

As the winds of change swept across Africa in the mid-20th century, the movements advocating for Cabinda's separate status from Angola gained momentum. The Movement for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (MLEC) was formed in 1960, and it later merged with other groups to create the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). FLEC led a guerrilla war against the Portuguese and, later, the Angolans, insisting that Cabinda should be an independent country based on the terms of the original treaties.

Post-Independence Turmoil

When Portugal granted independence to its colonies in the 1970s, Cabinda's status became a point of contention. In 1975, the Treaty of Alvor between Portugal and Angola's liberation movements reconfirmed Cabinda as part of Angola. This treaty was rejected by FLEC and other local political organisations, who continued to advocate for Cabinda's separate independence. Despite a ceasefire agreement in 2006, the issue remains unresolved, with FLEC insisting on total independence and Angola showing little willingness to let go of a region that accounts for a significant portion of its oil wealth.

Angolan occupation

The Angolan occupation of Cabinda has been a source of tension and conflict for decades, with Cabindans advocating for self-determination and independence from Angola. In 1975, Angola gained independence from Portugal, and Cabinda was incorporated as a province. However, the annexation of Cabinda by Angola is considered illegal by Cabindan independence movements, who cite historical and cultural differences as well as the 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which established Cabinda as a separate Portuguese protectorate.

The occupation of Cabinda by Angola has been marked by persistent political protests and guerrilla activities led by separatist groups such as the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). FLEC has been fighting against the Angolan government since 1975, advocating for the independence of Cabinda. The conflict in Cabinda largely ended with a peace accord signed in 2006. However, sporadic skirmishes and attacks continued, with a resurgence in violence occurring in 2016 as FLEC intensified its attacks on Angolan military forces.

The Angolan occupation has been characterised by allegations of human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary detention, and persecution of Cabindan activists. Human rights organisations have reported a tense situation in Cabinda, with arbitrary arrests occurring regularly. Despite promises from the Angolan government to improve the situation, locals claim that they do not benefit from the region's oil wealth, with high unemployment and a lack of infrastructure development.

The oil industry in Cabinda is crucial for the Angolan economy, accounting for a significant portion of the country's exports and oil revenue. However, the occupation has resulted in a struggle for self-determination by the Cabindans, who seek to preserve their cultural and ethnic identity separate from Angola. The issue of Cabinda's status remains unresolved, with ongoing demands for independence and international recognition for the self-proclaimed Republic of Cabinda.

Guerrilla conflict

The roots of the conflict lie in the historical status of Cabinda as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire, established by the 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco. Cabindan independence movements consider the occupation of the territory by Angola illegal and argue that the treaty granted them the right to self-determination. This belief in the right to self-governance has fuelled the guerrilla conflict, with FLEC operating a low-intensity guerrilla war targeting Angolan government troops and economic targets.

The conflict has been characterised by attacks on Angolan government troops, kidnappings of foreign employees, and disruptions to the oil industry, which is vital to Angola's economy. In 2006, a ceasefire was announced, and a peace accord was signed between the FLEC-aligned Cabinda Forum for Dialogue and the Angolan government, bringing an end to the majority of the conflict. However, sporadic skirmishes continued, and in 2016 there was a resurgence in fighting as FLEC increased its attacks on Angolan military forces.

The conflict has resulted in human rights abuses by both sides, with the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) committing serious and widespread violations of international human rights and humanitarian law against civilians. FLEC has also been implicated in abuses, including the 2010 attack on the Togo national football team, which resulted in three deaths and several injuries.

Lack of infrastructure

Cabinda is a valuable exclave of Angola due to its oil reserves, which account for around 60% of Angola's oil production. However, despite its significant contribution to the national economy, Cabinda has long suffered from a lack of infrastructure development. This is evident in the high unemployment rate of 88% and the presence of outdated infrastructure dating back to colonial times. The local population has expressed dissatisfaction with the lack of investment in the region, claiming that they do not benefit from the oil revenues generated in Cabinda.

The lack of infrastructure in Cabinda can be attributed to several factors, including the region's disputed status and political instability. As a result of its isolation from the rest of Angola and its unique cultural and historical background, there have been persistent political protests and separatist movements advocating for the independence of Cabinda. This has led to a prolonged struggle between the Angolan government and separatist groups, such as the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). The conflict has hindered economic development and discouraged investment in the region.

Additionally, the lack of infrastructure in Cabinda can be partly attributed to the region's complex history and changing administrative status. Over time, Cabinda has experienced various changes in its status within the Portuguese framework, ranging from relative autonomy to integration within the larger Colony or Province of Angola. This lack of consistency and clear administrative boundaries has likely contributed to the lack of infrastructure development in the region.

Moreover, the presence of natural resources, particularly oil, has also played a role in the lack of infrastructure development in Cabinda. The discovery of oil fields in the region shifted the focus towards petroleum production, which now accounts for most of Cabinda's domestic product. This shift in economic priorities may have led to a neglect of other sectors, including infrastructure development.

The lack of infrastructure in Cabinda has had significant impacts on the lives of its residents. In addition to the high unemployment rate, many locals face challenges due to the lack of basic amenities such as electricity, drinking water, and proper sewage systems. This has further fueled the sentiments of marginalization and dissatisfaction among the Cabindan population.

Overall, the lack of infrastructure in Cabinda, Angola's valuable exclave, can be attributed to a combination of factors, including political instability, historical administrative changes, and the influence of natural resource extraction. Addressing these issues and investing in infrastructure development is crucial for improving the lives of Cabindans and fostering a sense of inclusion within Angola.

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