Lexi Webster
The Balkan peninsula in southeastern Europe has been a site of conflict for centuries, with its location between Europe and Asia making it a strategically important region. The decline of the Ottoman Empire created a power vacuum in the Balkans, leading to clashes between the interests of major powers and the nationalist aspirations of the region's diverse ethnic groups. This volatile mix of interests and aspirations resulted in political agitation, anti-Austrian propaganda, and even acts of terrorism. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 by a Serbian nationalist was a pivotal moment in this regard, as it threatened the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for Austrian presence in the Balkans | To prevent Russia from establishing itself as the protector of the orthodox Balkan Slavs |
| Austrian government's intention | To strengthen its position as a regional power in the western Balkans |
| Austria's actions | Offered 'development aid' to the Ottoman Empire to map the western Balkans |
| Austria's denial | The Foreign Ministry in Vienna denied aspirations to expand into Bosnia |
| Austria's preparation | Prepared for an invasion |
| Austria's diplomacy | Gained agreement from major European powers for the occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina |
| Austria's interests | Economic interests, many Austrian companies are already in the region |
| Austria's relationship with the Balkans | Austria is one of the EU countries with the tightest relationship with Southeastern Europe |
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What You'll Learn
Serbian irredentism and Bosnian Serb uprising
The decline of the Ottoman Empire left a power vacuum in the Balkans, leading to clashes between the interests of major powers and the national programmes of the region's emergent peoples. This situation prompted Austria-Hungary to strengthen its position as a regional power in the western Balkans, with the government in Vienna offering "development aid" to the Ottomans in the form of infrastructure expansion and mapping of the western Balkans. However, this was a thinly veiled attempt to obtain precise information about the region in anticipation of a possible invasion. Indeed, Austria-Hungary's Balkan policy aimed to strengthen its presence in the region and counter Russian ambitions of establishing itself as the protector of the orthodox Balkan Slavs.
The rise of Serbia as a regional power, however, thwarted Austria-Hungary's plans. Serbia's growing significance, coupled with its gradual liberation from Ottoman sovereignty, made the young state increasingly assertive in demanding the "return" of allegedly "Serbian soil". This Serbian irredentism led to an armed uprising by Bosnian Serbs against Ottoman rulers in Bosnia. Serbia, along with Montenegro and Russia, openly supported this revolt, which began in Herzegovina in 1875 and evolved into a war of liberation by the Serbs under Ottoman rule.
The First Serbian Uprising, which lasted from 14 February 1804 to 7 October 1813, was a pivotal event in Serbian history. It marked the first time in centuries of Ottoman rule that Serbs rose up against the Sultan, ultimately establishing a short-lived independent state. The uprising began as a local revolt against the Dahije, who had seized power through a coup and imposed oppressive measures on the Serbs. Over time, it transformed into a broader war for independence, known as the Serbian Revolution.
The Serbian Revolution was characterised by national unity and demands for freedom of religion and a formal, written rule of law. The revolutionaries abolished feudal obligations and established the Great Academy of Belgrade, the first Serbian institution of higher learning. Despite setbacks, such as the exile of the uprising's leader, Karađorđe, to Austria, and the brutal Ottoman recapture of Belgrade in October 1813, the Serbian cause persisted. This led to the Second Serbian Uprising (1815-1817), which constituted the second phase of the national revolution against the Ottoman Empire.
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Russian ambitions and Austrian-Russian conflict
The decline of the Ottoman Empire left a power vacuum in the Balkans, which became a theatre of conflict between the interests of major powers and the national programmes of the emergent peoples of southeastern Europe. This included the ambitions of Austria-Hungary and Russia.
Austria-Hungary sought to strengthen its position as a regional power in the western Balkans. The government in Vienna saw intervention in the region as a way of turning southern Slav nationalism into a pro-Austrian movement. In 1878, Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was expected to be a mere formality. However, it took 150,000 Habsburg troops and several weeks of fighting to establish authority in the region.
Russia also had ambitions in the Balkans, offering in 1876 to join with Austria-Hungary in partitioning the region between them. Count Gyula Andrássy, the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, believed that Austria-Hungary was unable to cope with more nationalities and lands, and so initially resisted the offer. However, through Bismarck's mediation, Russia eventually settled for the territory of Bessarabia, with Austria-Hungary acquiring Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The rise of Serbia as a regional power, however, threatened to thwart Austrian ambitions in the Balkans. Serbia's liberation from Ottoman sovereignty made the young state increasingly aggressive in its demands for the 'return' of supposedly 'Serbian soil'. This led to an armed uprising by Bosnian Serbs against the Ottoman rulers in Bosnia, which was openly supported by Serbia, Montenegro, and Russia. A revolt in Herzegovina in 1875 developed into a war of liberation by the Serbs under Ottoman rule, supported by the already independent young states of Serbia, Romania, and Greece.
Convinced that Serbian nationalism and Russian Balkan ambitions were disintegrating the Empire, Austria-Hungary hoped for a limited war against Serbia with strong German support. However, Austria-Hungary's attack against Serbia ultimately led to a general war, as Russia intervened, leading to a continental conflict.
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Austria-Hungary's expansionist aspirations
The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the mid-to-late 19th century created a power vacuum in the Balkans that Austria-Hungary sought to fill. The Balkans became a theatre of conflict between the interests of major powers and the national programmes of the emergent peoples of southeastern Europe.
In 1873, Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, and Russia formed the Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperors' League), agreeing to work together for peace in the Balkans. However, this did not prevent the outbreak of revolts and upheavals in 1875 as the decline of Ottoman power encouraged the Balkan nations to seek independence from Turkish rule.
At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the division of power in the Balkans was restructured. Despite initially resisting Russian offers to partition the Balkans, Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it formally annexed in 1908. This unilateral action, coinciding with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire, sparked protests from Serbia, Montenegro, and Russia, damaging relations between Austria-Hungary and its neighbours.
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Political agitation and anti-Austrian propaganda
Austria-Hungary, aiming to strengthen its position as a regional power and counter Russian ambitions in the Balkans, sought to intervene and turn southern Slav nationalism into a pro-Austrian movement. This included providing "development aid" to the Ottoman Empire in the form of infrastructure expansion and mapping the western Balkans. However, internally, Austria-Hungary had imperialistic aspirations and prepared for an invasion of Bosnia and Herzegovina. To gain agreement from other European powers for this occupation, Austria-Hungary engaged in imperial diplomacy, which resulted in the Congress of Berlin in 1878, where the division of power in the Balkans was restructured. Despite these efforts, Austria-Hungary faced opposition from Serbia, which had gradually liberated itself from Ottoman rule and aggressively demanded the "return" of Serbian soil.
Serbian irredentism led to armed uprisings by Bosnian Serbs against the Ottoman rulers, supported by Serbia, Montenegro, and Russia. This developed into a war of liberation by the Serbs, with the support of the de facto independent states of Serbia, Romania, and Greece. Serbian expansion threatened the stability of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Austro-Hungarian generals began taking a tougher stance against Serbia. Political agitation and anti-Austrian propaganda were prevalent among Serbian nationalists, encouraged by Russian agents and individuals within the Serbian government, military, and public service. Their most significant act was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in June 1914 by Gavrilo Princip, a member of Crna Ruka.
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The Balkan League and the Ottoman Empire
The Balkan League was an alliance formed by the kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro. It was concluded by the governments of Serbia, Romania, Montenegro, and Greece, and a Bulgarian revolutionary society. The League was formed to drive the Turks from the Balkans and unite the South Slavs in a single state. The First Balkan War lasted from October 1912 to May 1913 and involved the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The war was a disaster for the Ottomans, who lost 83% of their European territories and 69% of their European population. The Balkan states' combined armies overcame the inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies, achieving rapid success.
The formation of the Balkan League was aided by the evident inefficiency of the Ottoman Army. The Ottomans were at war with Italy for a year (September 1911 to October 1912) over Libya, which exhausted the Ottoman state. The Italian occupation of the Greek-inhabited Dodecanese Islands also served as a warning for Greece of the consequences of staying out of a future war against the Ottomans. The decline of the Ottoman Empire created a vacuum that the Balkan League sought to fill.
The First Balkan War was also influenced by the interests of major powers such as Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Great Britain. Austria-Hungary, for example, sought to strengthen its position as a regional power in the western Balkans and turn southern Slav nationalism into a pro-Austrian movement. It offered "development aid" to the Ottoman Empire in the form of assistance in expanding infrastructure and mapping the western Balkans. However, this was also a strategy to obtain precise information about the region for potential expansion.
The British Empire, officially a supporter of the Ottoman Empire's integrity, took secret diplomatic steps. They encouraged Greek entry into the League to counteract Russian influence and supported Bulgarian aspirations over Thrace. The Great Powers, including France and Austria-Hungary, tried unsuccessfully to dissuade the Balkan League from going to war. Despite these efforts, the First Balkan War ended with the League capturing and partitioning almost all of the Ottoman Empire's remaining territories in Europe.
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Frequently asked questions
Serbian nationalists hated the Austrian presence in the Balkans. This was due to Serbian irredentism and the desire for 'Serbian soil' to be 'returned'.
Austria wanted to strengthen its position as a regional power in the Balkans and prevent Russia from establishing itself as the protector of the Orthodox Balkan Slavs.
Austria-Hungary was allowed to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina following the Treaty of San Stefano. This was justified as providing 'development aid' to the Ottoman Empire, but it was also a way for Austrian strategists to gather information about the region.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist, in June 1914 ultimately led to the outbreak of World War I.
Austria remains interested in the accession of Western Balkan countries to the EU, driven by economic interests and the presence of many people from the diaspora living in Vienna. However, Austria's political stance towards the region has been described as lacking depth and coherence.
