The Soviet Retreat: Unraveling Afghanistan's Decade Of Conflict

The Soviet-Afghan War ended in February 1989 when Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan. The war began in 1979 when the USSR entered neighbouring Afghanistan to support the newly established pro-Soviet regime in Kabul. The Soviets took control of major cities and highways, but rebellion was swift and broad, with Mujahideen rebels receiving foreign support from Iran, Pakistan, China, and the United States. The brutal nine-year conflict resulted in the deaths of an estimated one million civilians, as well as 90,000 Mujahideen fighters, 18,000 Afghan troops, and 14,500 Soviet soldiers. The Soviet withdrawal led to a civil war that set the stage for the Taliban's takeover of the country in 1996.

The Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan

The Soviet Union entered Afghanistan in 1979, sending in nearly 100,000 soldiers to take control of major cities and support the newly established pro-Soviet regime in Kabul. The invasion was met with swift and broad rebellion from Mujahideen rebels, who received foreign support from countries like the US, Iran, Pakistan, and China. The brutal nine-year conflict resulted in significant casualties, with an estimated one million civilians killed, along with thousands of Mujahideen fighters, Afghan troops, and Soviet soldiers.

The decision to withdraw was influenced by the changing political landscape in the Soviet Union. Mikhail Gorbachev, who took power in 1985, faced pressure from the People's Republic of China and announced his intention to withdraw from Afghanistan in 1987. The withdrawal process began in May 1988 and was completed in February 1989.

The Soviet Union's withdrawal did not bring an end to the conflict in Afghanistan. Instead, it set the stage for a civil war that culminated in the Taliban's takeover of the country in 1996. The power vacuum left by the Soviet departure led to a struggle for control among various factions, including the Mujahideen groups and the remaining Afghan government forces.

The withdrawal of Soviet troops had a significant impact on the region. It marked a turning point in the Cold War, as it demonstrated the limitations of Soviet influence and expansionism. Additionally, the power vacuum created by the Soviet departure contributed to the rise of the Taliban and the growth of extremist organizations like al-Qaeda, which would have significant implications for global security in the following decades.

The civil war that followed the Soviet-Afghan War

The Soviet-Afghan War ended in February 1989, with the Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan. However, this was followed by a civil war between various mujahideen groups and the communist government, which continued until 1992.

The mujahideen groups were fragmented and politically independent of each other, with their military efforts remaining uncoordinated throughout the war. Despite this, the quality of their arms and combat organisation improved over time, owing to their experience and the large quantity of arms and war matériel supplied by the United States, Pakistan, and other countries, as well as sympathetic Muslims worldwide.

One mujahideen group, Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin, was responsible for attacking other mujahideen groups, particularly those of Ahmad Shah Massoud, and blocking their food and arms supplies.

In March 1989, the mujahideen coalition, along with the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), attacked the city of Jalalabad but were defeated in June in the Battle of Jalalabad. This led to Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin withdrawing their support for the mujahideen coalition.

In March 1991, a mujahideen coalition quickly conquered the city of Khost. In March 1992, President Mohammad Najibullah, having lost Soviet support, agreed to step down and make way for a mujahideen coalition government. However, one mujahideen group, Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin, refused to join the coalition government and invaded Kabul with the help of Khalqist Generals, triggering a civil war.

By April 1992, various mujahideen groups were vying for control of Kabul, and by the end of the year, thousands had been killed, and half a million residents had fled the city. The civil war continued until 1996, when the Taliban took control of Kabul.

The rise of the Taliban

The Taliban, or "students" in Pashto, are a predominantly Pashtun Islamic fundamentalist group that returned to power in Afghanistan in 2021 after waging an insurgency against the U.S.-backed government in Kabul since 2001. The group first emerged in the early 1990s in northern Pakistan following the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan.

The Taliban initially gained support by promising to impose stability and rule of law after years of conflict between rival mujahideen groups. They were also seen as a counterweight to revolutionary Iran, embracing political Islam and viewing jihad as a political weapon. The Pakistani government, in particular, supported the Taliban's rise to power as a way to exert influence in Afghanistan and establish a government loyal to Islamabad.

The Taliban's early popularity was largely due to their success in stamping out corruption, curbing lawlessness, and making the areas under their control safe for commerce. They were also aided by Pakistani interests, including the "Afghanistan Transit Trade," a Pakistan-based trucking mafia that trained, armed, and financed the Taliban to clear the southern road across Afghanistan for extortionate bandit gangs.

The Taliban's interpretation and enforcement of Sharia law, however, led to numerous human rights abuses. They banned television, music, and cinema and disapproved of girls aged ten and over going to school. They also introduced harsh punishments, including public executions of convicted murderers and adulterers, as well as amputations for those found guilty of theft. Men were required to grow beards, and women had to wear the all-covering burka.

In 1996, the Taliban seized control of Kabul, overthrowing the regime of President Burhanuddin Rabbani. By 1998, they controlled almost 90% of Afghanistan. However, their rule was short-lived, as they were ousted by the U.S.-led military coalition in 2001.

Following their removal from power, the Taliban regrouped in Pakistan and began taking back territory. In 2020, they struck a deal with the U.S. for troops to withdraw, and in 2021, they rapidly advanced across Afghanistan, seizing control of the country once again.

The Taliban's return to power has had devastating consequences for Afghans, with the economy imploding, malnutrition rates rising, and women's rights being severely curtailed. The group has also been accused of a range of abuses, including killing opponents and detaining journalists and protesters. The international community is waiting for the Taliban to honour promises on security, governance, and human rights before releasing billions of dollars in frozen Afghan assets.

The US's role in the conflict

The US played a significant role in the Soviet-Afghan War, which was a major conflict of the Cold War. The US viewed the conflict as an opportunity to increase its access to Afghan oil and thwart the Soviets.

The US began sending aid to the Mujahideen in 1979, which included weapons and money funnelled through Pakistan. This was known as Operation Cyclone. The US also imposed economic sanctions and trade embargoes on the Soviet Union.

The US aid to the Mujahideen was further increased under the Reagan administration, and at its height, American aid to the rebels reached $400 million per year. The US also provided Stinger missiles to the Mujahideen, which were used to bring down Soviet aircraft.

The US support for the Mujahideen was part of a broader strategy to counter Soviet influence and expansionism in the region. The conflict in Afghanistan was seen as an integral Cold War struggle, and the US sought to exploit the situation to gain a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union.

The US also played a role in the diplomatic efforts to end the war. In 1988, the US, along with the Soviet Union, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, signed an agreement for the withdrawal of Soviet troops, which was completed in 1989.

However, the US disengaged from Afghanistan after the Soviet withdrawal, and the focus shifted to other foreign policy priorities. This created a power vacuum that contributed to the rise of the Taliban and the continued instability in the region.

The mujahideen's resistance movement

The mujahideen were a coalition of guerrilla groups in Afghanistan that opposed the invading Soviet forces and eventually toppled the Afghan communist government during the Afghan War (1978–92). The mujahideen were at first poorly equipped, and they remained decentralised throughout the war. Holding most of the countryside, they used mainly animal transport against Soviet motor transport.

The mujahideen were politically fragmented, with the most influential being the Jamiat-e Islami and Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin parties. The Afghan mujahideen consisted of numerous groups that differed from each other across ethnic and/or ideological lines, but were united by their anti-communist and pro-Islamic goals. The coalition of anti-Soviet Muslim militias was also known as the Afghan resistance, and the Western press widely referred to the Afghan guerrillas as "freedom fighters", or "Mountain Men".

The mujahideen were aided by the Pakistani, American, British, Chinese and Saudi governments, but their primary source of funding was private donors and religious charities throughout the Muslim world—particularly in the Persian Gulf. The mujahideen's resistance movement started chaotically in 1978 and had always stayed highly segmented along regional, ethnic, tribal and religious lines. After four years, the mujahideen operated from an estimated 4,000 bases, with a typical commander leading a few hundred men.

In 1985, seven larger Sunni Islamic rebel groups coordinated their fight against the Soviets, who were also known as the Pakistani-backed Peshawar 7 Mujahideen Alliance. In 1986, the mujahideen's acquisition of substantial numbers of shoulder-fired surface-to-air missiles from the United States and Great Britain enabled them to challenge Soviet control of the air—a significant factor in the Soviets’ withdrawal early in 1989. In February 1989, the seven Sunni mujahideen factions formed an Afghan Interim Government (AIG) in Peshawar. The AIG became a failure, partly because it could not solve the differences between the factions, and partly because of limited public support as it excluded the Iran-backed Shia mujahideen factions, and the exclusion of supporters of ex-King Mohammed Zahir Shah.

The mujahideen caused serious casualties to the Soviet forces, and made the war very costly for the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Soviet Union withdrew its forces from Afghanistan. However, the mujahideen could not establish a functional united government, and many of the larger mujahideen groups began to fight each other over power in Kabul.

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