Germany's Annexation Of Austria: Violating International Peace And Promises

On March 12, 1938, Germany annexed Austria, an event known as the Anschluss. This annexation was a violation of the Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, between Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers. The annexation was also a violation of the Treaty of Saint-Germain, signed on September 10, 1919, which explicitly forbade any union between Germany and Austria and established Austria as an independent country.

The Anschluss was a complex event with significant consequences. It was the result of increasing pressure from pro-unification activists and Nazi agents cultivating pro-unification tendencies in Austria. The annexation was met with widespread support from the Austrian population, with 99.7% voting in favour of joining the German Reich in a plebiscite. However, the process was not without opposition, as Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg initially resisted, leading to his forced resignation.

The annexation of Austria had far-reaching implications, including the persecution of Jews, the establishment of concentration camps, and the integration of Austrian and German armies. It also marked a significant step in Hitler's expansionist agenda, as outlined in the Hossbach Memorandum, which included the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland part of Czechoslovakia.

Violation of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, between Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers, was violated by Germany's annexation of Austria. This violation occurred on March 12, 1938, when German troops crossed the border into Austria, marking the country's annexation into the German Reich.

The annexation, known as the Anschluss, was a significant event in the lead-up to World War II. It was the result of a long-standing desire for unification among Nazis, who sought to incorporate ethnic Germans outside of Germany into a "Greater Germany." This ideology was a fundamental aspect of the Nazi "Heim ins Reich" concept. In the years leading up to the annexation, Nazi agents cultivated pro-unification sentiments in Austria and worked to undermine the Austrian government.

The Austrian population largely supported the annexation, with 99.7% voting in favour of joining the German Reich in a plebiscite. However, this vote was not conducted in secret, and coercion and threats were employed to manipulate the outcome. The annexation was met with international condemnation, except from Italy and Japan, who were partners with Germany in the anti-Comintern Pact.

The violation of the Treaty of Versailles by Germany's annexation of Austria had far-reaching consequences and marked a critical step in the expansion of Nazi power and influence in Europe.

Violation of the Treaty of Saint-Germain

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on 10 September 1919, officially ended World War I and was signed by the victorious Allies of World War I and the Republic of German-Austria. The treaty included 381 articles, including the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the independence of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia), and the forbiddance of Austria's union with Germany without the consent of the Council of the League of Nations.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was a violation of the Treaty of Saint-Germain as it expressly forbade the union of Austria and Germany. This violation had significant implications for Europe between the two World Wars, as it contributed to the chronic instability on the continent.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye also imposed several restrictions on Austria, including limiting its army to 30,000 volunteers and banning arms factories. Additionally, the treaty required Austria to pay reparations for war damage, although the exact amount was never defined or collected.

The Austrian delegation, led by Chancellor Karl Renner, protested the treaty, particularly the territorial conditions and the ban on union with Germany. Despite these protests, the treaty was ratified by the Austrian parliament on 17 October 1919 and came into force on 16 July 1920.

The violation of the Treaty of Saint-Germain by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye had far-reaching consequences and set the stage for further tensions and conflicts in Europe.

Violation of the Fourteen Points

The annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, violated the Fourteen Points, a set of principles outlined by US President Woodrow Wilson during peace talks at the end of World War I. Specifically, it infringed upon the right to "self-determination" of all nations. This violation sparked debates about Austria's role in World War II, with some arguing that the country was the first victim of Nazi Germany.

The Fourteen Points, announced by Wilson, aimed to establish a peaceful and stable international order following the First World War. The right to self-determination was a key component of these principles, recognising the autonomy and sovereignty of nations. However, the Anschluss directly contradicted this idea by forcibly incorporating Austria into Nazi Germany without regard for the wishes of the Austrian people.

The Anschluss was a significant event in the lead-up to World War II, and it had far-reaching consequences. It demonstrated Hitler's expansionist ambitions and his disregard for international norms and peace. The violation of the Fourteen Points set a precedent for further aggression and the violation of other treaties, contributing to the escalating tensions in Europe.

In the aftermath of World War II, there were attempts to reconcile Austria's role during the conflict. The "victim theory" emerged, portraying Austria as an unwilling participant in the Nazi regime and a victim of German aggression. This theory gained traction and influenced the treatment of Austria during the post-war period, including the lack of a thorough denazification process.

However, it is important to recognise that the Anschluss did violate the Fourteen Points, particularly the principle of self-determination. While the complexities of Austria's role during World War II are nuanced, the forced annexation by Germany represented a clear breach of the international order that Wilson had envisioned.

The violation of the Fourteen Points during the Anschluss highlights the challenges of maintaining a peaceful international order and the consequences when such principles are disregarded.

Violation of the Austrian Constitution

The annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, was a violation of the Austrian Constitution. This act, driven by Adolf Hitler's desire for unification and the Nazi concept of "Heim ins Reich", involved the incorporation of Austria into the German Reich. The process began when Austrian chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg announced a referendum on a possible union with Germany, which was opposed by Hitler. On March 12, 1938, German troops crossed the border into Austria unopposed and a referendum was held on April 10, with widespread coercion resulting in a 99.7% approval for the Anschluss.

The violation of the Austrian Constitution can be examined through several aspects:

• Coercion and Intimidation: The referendum held on April 10, 1938, was not conducted secretly, and voters were subjected to threats and coercion. This atmosphere of intimidation violated the fundamental principles of free and fair elections, which are integral to any democratic constitution.
• Undermining Austrian Sovereignty: The Anschluss directly contradicted the concept of Austrian sovereignty, as it effectively dissolved the Federal State of Austria and incorporated it into the German Reich. This loss of sovereignty meant that Austrian laws and governance were now subject to the authority of the German Reich, which was a clear breach of the country's constitutional framework.
• Disregard for Constitutional Amendments: Prior to the annexation, Austria had made significant amendments to its constitution, such as the Federal Constitution of 1929 and the May Constitution of 1934. These amendments aimed to establish a strong and independent Austrian state. However, the Anschluss rendered these constitutional changes meaningless as the country's sovereignty and self-governance were abruptly terminated.
• Violation of Constitutional Provisions: The Austrian Constitution, particularly the Federal Constitution of 1929, outlined specific provisions for the country's governance. These provisions included the role and powers of the federal president, the structure of the federal government, and the protection of fundamental rights. By forcibly removing President Miklas and installing a Nazi-aligned chancellor, Arthur Seyß-Inquart, Germany violated these constitutional provisions and undermined the country's democratic foundations.
• Infringement of Individual Rights: The Austrian Constitution guaranteed certain fundamental rights to its citizens, such as freedom of expression, assembly, and religious freedom. However, the Nazi regime's policies and practices, including the persecution of Jews and the suppression of opposition, directly violated these individual rights, contravening the country's constitutional protections.
• Breach of Constitutional Principles: The Austrian Constitution embodied certain core principles, such as federalism, separation of powers, and respect for the rule of law. The Anschluss, however, disrupted the federal structure of Austria, blurred the separation of powers by concentrating authority in the hands of the Nazi regime, and disregarded the rule of law by imposing arbitrary policies and persecuting dissidents.

In conclusion, the annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938 violated the Austrian Constitution in multiple ways. It undermined the country's sovereignty, disregarded constitutional amendments, breached constitutional provisions, infringed individual rights, and contravened core constitutional principles. The Anschluss represented a forceful rejection of Austria's democratic foundations and the imposition of Nazi ideology and control.

Violation of the Hague Convention

The annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938, known as the Anschluss, violated the Hague Convention, specifically the Hague Convention IV of 18 October 1907, which states that:

> A belligerent is also prohibited from compelling the nationals of the adversary to take part in military operations against their country, even in cases where they were in his service before the commencement of the war.

The Anschluss was the first act of territorial aggression and expansion by Nazi Germany, and it was widely popular in both Germany and Austria. However, it resulted in a surge of public violence against Austrian Jews, who were forced to clean public toilets, perform humiliating tasks, and scrub the streets of Vienna.

The idea of a union between Austria and Germany, resulting in a "Greater Germany", had been proposed after the 1871 unification of Germany, which excluded Austria. This proposal gained support after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. The new Republic of German-Austria attempted to unite with Germany, but the Treaty of Saint Germain and the Treaty of Versailles, signed at the end of World War I, prohibited this union and stripped Austria of some of its territories, such as the Sudetenland.

The Nazis' annexation of Austria violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which explicitly forbade the unification of Austria and Germany. This demonstrated the Nazis' disregard for the post-World War I European order. The other European powers did not intervene or punish the Nazis for violating these international treaties, which was a significant act of appeasement.

The Anschluss was not inevitable, and the rapid Nazification of Austria was facilitated by certain historical factors and events. The Austrian Nazi Party waged a propaganda and terror campaign, encouraged and funded by Germany, which undermined the Dollfuss regime and made it look incompetent. Austrian Nazis set off explosives and tear gas bombs in public places and Jewish-owned businesses. The German government also imposed economic sanctions on Austria, crippling its tourism industry.

The failed coup attempt by Austrian Nazis in July 1934, which resulted in the assassination of Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, further destabilised the country. Kurt von Schuschnigg, who became chancellor after Dollfuss' death, attempted to preserve Austrian independence by calling for a plebiscite on March 13, 1938. However, Hitler responded with a series of ultimatums, demanding that Schuschnigg cancel the plebiscite, resign, and appoint the Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart as the new chancellor. Faced with the threat of a German military invasion, Schuschnigg conceded to Hitler's demands, and the Anschluss took place on March 12, 1938, with German troops crossing the border and being greeted by cheering Austrians.

The Anschluss transformed Austria overnight. Austrian and German Nazis carried out the Nazification of Austrian life, and Austrians participated in the persecution of the country's Jewish population, enacted Nazi policies, and fought in World War II. The annexation of Austria was a significant breach of the post-World War I international order, and it set the stage for further Nazi aggression in Europe.

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