Central Europe: Russian, Prussian, And Austrian Influence

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Kingdom of Prussia was a powerful German state that played a significant role in European affairs. It was often allied with or influenced by its neighbouring powers, including Austria and Russia. Prussia's complex relationships with these two empires were shaped by shared borders, competing interests, and shifting alliances.

Prussia, Austria, and Russia were all involved in the partitions of Poland, which resulted in the annexation and redistribution of Polish territories among them. Prussia and Austria also clashed in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, which ended with Prussian dominance over the German states and the formation of the North German Confederation.

Prussia and Russia had a history of collaboration and rivalry. They were allies during the Napoleonic Wars and the Polish uprisings but clashed over influence in Denmark and the Baltic region.

Austria and Russia, both absolutist monarchies, found common ground in their opposition to the French Revolution and Napoleon. They were part of the coalition that defeated Napoleon and reshaped the European map at the Congress of Vienna.

In summary, Prussia, Austria, and Russia were key players in the complex web of European politics and diplomacy during this period, often influencing and being influenced by each other's actions and decisions.

The Austro-Prussian War of 1866

The Austro-Prussian War, also known as the Seven Weeks' War, was fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia, with each aided by various allies within the German Confederation. Prussia also had an alliance with the Kingdom of Italy, linking the conflict to the Third Independence War of Italian unification. The war was part of the wider rivalry between Austria and Prussia, and resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states.

Prelude to the War

The war was sparked by a dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein, which they had conquered from Denmark and agreed to jointly occupy at the end of the Second Schleswig War in 1864. The crisis began on 26 January 1866, when Prussia protested against the decision of the Austrian Governor of Holstein to allow the estates of the duchies to call a united assembly, claiming it breached the principle of joint sovereignty. Austria responded on 7 February, asserting that its decision did not infringe on Prussia's rights. In March, both sides reinforced their troops along their shared frontier. Prussia made an alliance with Italy on 8 April, committing it to the war if Prussia entered one against Austria within three months. This incentivised Prussia to go to war with Austria within that timeframe, so that Italy would divert Austrian strength away from Prussia. Austria responded by mobilising its Southern Army on the Italian border on 21 April, and Italy called for a general mobilisation on 26 April. Prussia's general mobilisation orders were signed in steps on 3, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12 May.

The War

On 1 June, Austria brought the Schleswig-Holstein dispute before the German Diet and decided to convene the Diet of Holstein on 11 June. Prussia declared that the Gastein Convention of 14 August 1865 had been nullified and invaded Holstein on 9 June. When the German Diet responded by voting for a partial mobilisation against Prussia on 14 June, Bismarck claimed that the German Confederation had ended. The Prussian Army invaded Hanover, Saxony and the Electorate of Hesse on 15 June. Italy declared war on Austria on 20 June.

The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of General Staff Helmuth von Moltke had meticulously planned for the war, rapidly mobilising the Prussian army and advancing across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for an invasion of Silesia. The Prussian armies, led by King William I, converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové) on 3 July. The Prussian Army of the Elbe advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the centre, prematurely, risking being counter-flanked on their left. However, the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing, thanks to the work of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal, ensured victory for Prussia against Austrian numerical superiority. An armistice between Prussia and Austria came into effect at noon on 22 July, and a preliminary peace was signed on 26 July at Nikolsburg.

Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on 27 June 1866, but surrendered a few days later due to superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and the Hessian states on the river Main, reaching Nuremberg and Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by Prussian artillery.

The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating them on land at the Battle of Custoza (24 June), and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (20 July). However, Italy's "Hunters of the Alps" led by Garibaldi defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Bezzecca on 21 July, and moved towards Trento. A redeployment of Austrian troops to hold the Danube facilitated an Italian march through the Venetian coastal plain, resulting in the armistice of Cormons on 12 August.

Aftermath

The Peace of Prague on 23 August 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation, Prussian annexation of four of Austria's former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. Prussia chose not to seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for the two countries to ally in the future. Prussia was now dominant in German politics, and free to form the North German Confederation the next year, incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. The war left Prussia with the ability to annex the northern German states in 1866 and then "force the Catholic states very much against their will into a federal union" in 1871, resulting in the German Empire, which became one of the most influential European powers.

The War of the Austrian Succession

The war can be divided into three separate but connected conflicts. The first was the Silesian Wars between Prussia and Austria, which began when Frederick II of Prussia invaded the Austrian province of Silesia on 16 December 1740. The Prussians defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741 and overran Silesia. This victory suggested that the Habsburg dominions were incapable of defending themselves and encouraged other countries to enter the war.

The second conflict saw Austria and Sardinia defeat Spanish attacks in Northern Italy. The third featured an increasingly global contest between Britain and France. In the end, French conquest of the Austrian Netherlands gave them dominance on land, while Britain's victories at sea cemented its place as the dominant naval power.

The war was also fought alongside other related conflicts, including King George's War in North America, the War of Jenkins' Ear, the First Carnatic War, and the Russo-Swedish War.

The immediate cause of the war was the death of Emperor Charles VI in 1740 and the inheritance of the Habsburg monarchy. The 1703 Mutual Pact of Succession provided that if the Habsburgs became extinct in the male line, these possessions would go first to Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, daughters of Emperor Joseph I, and then to Charles' younger brother. However, Salic law excluded women from the inheritance, so this agreement required approval from the various Habsburg territories and the Imperial Diet. Charles issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which confirmed the principle of female inheritance, but it also modified the 1703 agreement by placing the rights of his own children first.

The war was fought between several European powers. Prussia, France, and Bavaria saw the succession crisis as an opportunity to challenge Habsburg power, while Maria Theresa was backed by Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Hanover, collectively known as the Pragmatic Allies. As the conflict widened, it drew in other participants, including Spain, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden, and Russia. Prussia occupied Silesia in 1740, while Austria and Sardinia defeated Spanish attacks in Northern Italy. By early 1748, France held most of the Austrian Netherlands but was close to bankruptcy due to the war's cost and a British naval blockade.

The stalemate led to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which confirmed Maria Theresa in her titles but failed to resolve underlying tensions between the signatories. France achieved minimal gains for vast expenditure, while Prussia, often considered the clearest winner, acquired Silesia from Austria. This outcome undermined the long-standing Anglo-Austrian Alliance, as Maria Theresa deeply resented Britain's insistence that she cede Silesia to make peace. At the same time, the war demonstrated that Hanover, then held in personal union with the British Crown, was vulnerable to Prussian attacks. These changes set the scene for the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756.

The First Partition of Poland

The First Partition occurred after Russia became involved in a war against the Ottoman Turks in 1768 and won impressive victories, particularly in the Danubian principalities, alarming Austria, which threatened to enter the war against Russia. To avoid an escalation, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia determined to shift the direction of Russia’s expansion from the Turkish provinces to Poland, which had a weak government and had been devastated by civil war and Russian intervention.

On August 5, 1772, Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a treaty partitioning Poland. The agreement deprived Poland of approximately half of its population and almost one-third of its land area. Russia received all the Polish territory east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina and Dnieper rivers. Prussia gained the economically valuable province of Royal Prussia, excluding the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń, and also gained the northern portion of the region of Great Poland (Wielkopolska). Austria acquired the regions of Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River, western Podolia, and the area that subsequently became known as Galicia.

The Polish Sejm (legislature) ratified the partition treaty on September 30, 1773. The three partitioning powers then demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their actions. With no help forthcoming and the armies of the three nations occupying Warsaw, the only alternative was passive submission. On September 18, 1773, the Partition Sejm, with Russian military forces threatening the opposition, signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories.

The Second Partition of Poland

By 1790, the Commonwealth had deteriorated into a helpless condition and was forced into an alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The Polish-Prussian Pact of 1790 gave false hope that the Commonwealth might have found an ally that would shield it while it reformed itself. The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm. These reforms prompted aggressive actions from neighbouring countries, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Empress Catherine II was angered, arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France. Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792.

During the Polish-Russian War of 1792, Polish forces supporting the Constitution fought against the Imperial Russian Army, invited by the pro-Russian alliance of Polish magnates, known as the Targowica Confederation. The conservative nobility believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty. Abandoned by their Prussian allies, the badly outnumbered Polish pro-Constitution forces fought under Prince Józef Poniatowski a defensive war with some measure of success, but were ordered to abandon their efforts by their supreme commander, King Stanisław August Poniatowski. The King decided to join the Targowica Confederation, as demanded by the Russians.

Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms, with no overt goal of another partition. However, Frederick William II of Prussia saw these events as an opportunity to strengthen his country. He demanded that for his country's abandoning Poland as a close ally, for Prussian participation in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France, and because Prussia had recently suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Valmy, Prussia should be compensated – preferably with parts of Polish territory. Russia soon decided to accept the Prussian offer.

On 23 January 1793, Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive broad swaths of Commonwealth territory. Russian and Prussian troops took control of the territories they claimed, with Russian troops already present, and Prussian troops meeting only limited resistance. In 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm, the last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of Russian forces, agreed to the Russian and Prussian territorial demands. The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth but also because its deputies had been bribed and coerced by the Russians.

Imperial Russia annexed 250,000 square kilometres, while Prussia took 58,000 square kilometres. The Commonwealth lost about 307,000 square kilometres, being reduced to 215,000 square kilometres. Russia reorganised its newly acquired territories into the Minsk and Izyaslav Viceroyalties, while Prussia organised its gains into South Prussia. The Commonwealth lost about 5 million people, with only about 4 million remaining in the Polish-Lithuanian lands.

What was left of the Commonwealth was a small buffer state with a puppet king, and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced army. Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, lost much prestige and support. The reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support. In March 1794, the Kościuszko Uprising began. The defeat of the Uprising in November that year resulted in the final Third Partition of Poland, ending the existence of the Commonwealth.

The Third Partition of Poland

The partitions occurred against a backdrop of internal problems within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which left it vulnerable to foreign influences. By 1768, the federation was considered an unofficial protectorate of the Russian Empire, and its last king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was hand-picked by Empress Catherine II of Russia. Poniatowski's reign was marked by a desire to implement reforms necessary to save the state, while also remaining subordinate to Russia.

Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, Poniatowski put into effect a series of reforms to enhance Poland's military, political system, economy, and society. These reforms reached their climax with the enactment of the May Constitution in 1791, which established a constitutional monarchy with separation into three branches of government. The constitution also strengthened the bourgeoisie and abolished many of the privileges of the nobility, as well as many of the old laws of serfdom.

Angered by what were seen as dangerous, Jacobin-style reforms, Russia invaded Poland in 1792, beginning the War in Defense of the Constitution. Abandoned by their Prussian allies and betrayed by Polish nobles who desired to restore their lost privileges, Poland was forced to sign the Second Partition in 1793, ceding large portions of its territory to Prussia and Russia. Outraged by the further humiliation of Poland by its neighbours and the betrayal by the Polish nobility, the Polish masses quickly turned against the occupying forces of Prussia and Russia.

On 24 March 1794, Polish patriot Tadeusz Kościuszko took command of the Polish armed forces and declared a nationwide uprising against Poland's foreign occupiers, marking the beginning of the Kościuszko Uprising. Despite initial successes by Kościuszko's forces, the uprising was crushed by November 1794. According to legend, when Kościuszko fell off his horse at the Battle of Maciejowice, he said, "Finis Poloniae", meaning "the end of Poland" in Latin.

On 24 October 1795, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian representatives met to dissolve the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, signing a treaty to divide the region on 26 January 1797. This gave the Habsburg monarchy control of Western Galicia and Southern Mazovia territories, with approximately 1.2 million people. Prussia received Podlachia, the remainder of Masovia, and Warsaw, with 1 million people. Russia received the remaining land, including Vilnius and 1.2 million people. The Third Partition ended the existence of an independent Polish and Lithuanian state for the next 123 years.

Frequently asked questions