The Complex Breakup Of Austria-Hungary: Understanding The Split

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a dual monarchy formed in 1867, comprising the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary under a single ruler. Despite the unity of the empire, the two halves had distinct governments, constitutions, and parliaments, and citizens were treated as foreigners when in the other half. The empire was extremely diverse, with many different nationalities and language groups, and the rise of nationalism, particularly Slavic nationalism, would ultimately contribute to its dissolution. Following World War I, the Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye was signed by the Allies, forcing the newly formed Republic of Austria to recognise the independence of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs.

The rise of nationalism

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a multinational constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was a military and diplomatic alliance, consisting of two sovereign states with a single monarch who was titled both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The rise of nationalism in the years preceding World War One played a significant role in the breakup of the empire. Here is a more detailed explanation:

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was spread across a large swath of central and eastern Europe, encompassing modern-day states such as Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia, among others. The notion of a shared national identity was always going to be challenging given the diverse nature of the union and the number of ethnic groups involved – most of whom aspired to form their own nations.

Until World War One, the empire had managed to incorporate a degree of self-governance, with certain levels of devolution operating alongside the central government. Various diets and parliaments allowed the empire's subjects to feel a sense of dual identity. However, as the war approached, nationalist voices became more assertive, insisting that loyalty to the empire was incompatible with loyalty to one's ethnic group.

Nationalism was a significant force in the lead-up to the war, and it only intensified during the conflict. Slavic nationalism, in particular, posed a major challenge to the stability of the empire. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, driven by fears of a pan-Slavic state emerging, further stoked tensions. When Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serb in 1914, the empire used this as an excuse to go to war with Serbia, which had become a magnet for South Slav people.

During the war, nationalist sentiments among the Slavs only intensified, especially during the Austro-Hungarian campaigns in Serbia. The war efforts also took a heavy toll on the empire's economy and food production, leading to widespread hardship and starvation. The multi-ethnic army lost morale as nationalist sentiments within the empire grew, and civil rights were routinely suspended.

As the war neared its end, it became apparent that the Allied powers would emerge victorious. Nationalist movements, which had previously demanded greater autonomy, began pushing for full independence. The leftist and liberal movements in Vienna and Budapest supported the separatism of ethnic minorities, further contributing to the empire's disintegration. The military breakdown of the Italian front marked the start of rebellions among the various ethnicities within the empire, as they refused to continue fighting for a lost cause.

In October 1918, Emperor Karl I issued a proclamation to transform the empire into a federal union, granting ethnic groups more decentralization and representation. However, by this point, the national councils had already begun acting as provisional governments of independent countries. The Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence, and the Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague, followed by the Slovaks. The Slavs in both portions of the empire proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, intending to unite with Serbia and Montenegro.

On October 31, 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted to terminate the union with Austria, and Count Mihály Károlyi seized power in the Aster Revolution. Károlyi was appointed Hungarian prime minister, and one of his first acts was to repudiate the compromise agreement, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. The empire had collapsed with remarkable speed, and the remaining territories inhabited by divided peoples fell into the composition of existing or newly formed states.

The Treaty of St. Germain-en-Laye

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, signed on September 10, 1919, was a peace treaty between the victorious Allies of World War I and the Republic of German-Austria. The treaty officially recognised the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the independence of several new nations, including Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia).

The treaty was signed at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, near Paris, and came into force on July 16, 1920. It included the Covenant of the League of Nations, which the United States refused to ratify, leading to a separate US-Austrian Peace Treaty in 1921.

The terms of the treaty included significant territorial losses for Austria, amounting to over 60% of the pre-war Austrian Empire's territory. These losses included the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (forming the core of Czechoslovakia), Austrian Silesia (split between Czechoslovakia and Poland), the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (returned to Poland), Bukovina (ceded to Romania), and southern territories up to the Brenner Pass (awarded to Italy). Additionally, Austria-Hungary's only overseas possession, its concession in Tianjin, was returned to China.

The treaty also imposed military restrictions on Austria, limiting its army to 30,000 volunteers and prohibiting any union with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations. These terms, along with the absence of self-determination for ethnic Germans placed under Czechoslovak and Italian rule, were protested by Austrian officials. The economic and territorial losses left Austria financially weak and unstable in the lead-up to World War II.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye played a crucial role in reshaping the political landscape of Central Europe, solidifying the independence of the newly formed nations and setting the stage for the region's future dynamics.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise

The compromise was reached after the Austrian Empire was weakened by its defeat in the Seven Weeks' War (Austro-Prussian War) of 1866. The Kingdom of Hungary desired equal status with Austria, and the compromise granted Hungary full internal autonomy with a responsible ministry. In return, Hungary agreed that the empire should remain a single great state in terms of war and foreign affairs, thus maintaining its dynastic prestige abroad.

The two halves of the empire were distinct in terms of their constitutions, governments, and parliaments. The Austrian half, or Cisleithania, consisted of seventeen historical crown lands and was a multinational state. The Hungarian half, or Transleithania, was dominated by the Kingdom of Hungary, with the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, and the free city of Rijeka/Fiume. The Hungarians, or Magyars, were the dominant group, but there were several other ethnic minorities, including Slovaks, Romanians, and Serbs.

The compromise put an end to the 18-year-long military dictatorship and absolutist rule over Hungary instituted by Emperor Franz Joseph after the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. It restored Hungary's territorial integrity and its old historic constitution, as well as the Hungarian parliament, which had been the supreme legislative power in Hungary since the 12th century. Hungary also regained its independent legal and judicial systems.

The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies, with common ministries of foreign affairs, defence, and finance (for expenditures on the common army, navy, and diplomatic service). However, each half of the empire had its own government and prime minister, and citizens were treated as foreigners when in the other half.

The Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

In the mid-1870s, a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans and the subsequent repressive responses from the Turks caught the attention of the great powers of Europe: Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, sought to intervene against the Ottomans and obtained an agreement with Austria-Hungary. In the Budapest Conventions of 1877, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungary's control of Bosnia-Herzegovina in exchange for their neutrality in the impending war with the Turks.

The Treaty of San Stefano, imposed by Russia on the Ottomans after their victory, reneged on the Budapest Convention and declared that Bosnia-Herzegovina would be jointly occupied by Russian and Austrian troops. This was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which granted Austria-Hungary special rights and control over the administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Despite this, the Bosnian population, already divided between Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians, resisted Austrian rule.

In 1908, internal turmoil further weakened the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary saw an opportunity to strengthen its hold on Bosnia-Herzegovina. On October 5, 1908, after 30 years of occupation, Austria-Hungary announced the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, timed to coincide with Bulgaria's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire. This unilateral action sparked outrage and protests from the Great Powers, especially Serbia, Italy, and Russia, who shared close ethnic and geographical ties with Bosnia-Herzegovina.

The annexation caused a severe diplomatic crisis known as the Bosnian Crisis or the First Balkan Crisis. Serbia mobilized its army and demanded that Austria cede a portion of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Russia, pressured by anti-Austrian sentiment at home, supported Serbia's claims. Austria, backed by Germany, threatened to invade Serbia if it persisted in its demands. The crisis was eventually resolved without immediate warfare, but the damage to relations between Austria-Hungary, Serbia, and Russia was long-lasting and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

The rise of Slavic nationalism

One of the most prominent expressions of Slavic nationalism was the movement for a unified South Slavic state, often referred to as "Yugoslavism." Serbian and Croat intellectuals and political activists sought to liberate and unite their brethren under the rule of Serbia or an independent Yugoslav nation. The Serbian nationalist organisation, Narodna Odbrana (National Defence), played a pivotal role in promoting this agenda within the Empire.

The Czechs and Slovaks, chafing under Austrian and Hungarian domination, also intensified their efforts for self-determination. The Czech national movement, led by figures such as Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Beneš, later became the first president and foreign minister of an independent Czechoslovakia, respectively.

The Poles and Ruthenians (Ukrainians) also gained momentum during this period. The Poles, divided between the Austro-Hungarian, Prussian, and Russian Empires, sought to reunite and restore their independence. Meanwhile, the Ruthenians aspired to establish an autonomous or independent Ukrainian state.

During the First World War, nationalist sentiments among the Slavs intensified, especially during the Austro-Hungarian campaigns in Serbia. The Slavs' growing desire for self-determination, combined with the centrifugal forces of nationalism, proved too much for the aging multinational state to bear. The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 and the Wilsonian peace pronouncements from 1918 further encouraged nationalism and socialism among the Slavs.

As the war dragged on, nationalist movements within the Empire gained strength. The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 resulted in the creation of new nation-states, including Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Poland. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Trianon (1920) formalised the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary and recognised the independence of these successor states.

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