Bahrain's Transformation: The 1990S Decade Of Change

The 1990s in Bahrain were marked by an uprising that took place between 1994 and 1999. The uprising, also known as the uprising of dignity, was a movement for democratic reform. It was the first time in the Arab world that leftists, liberals, and Islamists joined forces, calling for the restoration of the dissolved parliament and the suspended constitution.

The uprising caused approximately 40 deaths and ended after Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999. He instituted wide-ranging social and political reforms, including granting women the right to vote, instituting elections, and promising a return to constitutional rule.

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa becomes Emir

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa's ascent to the throne as Emir of Bahrain in 1999 marked the end of the 1990s uprising in Bahrain. Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa is the son of Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, the previous and first Emir of Bahrain. Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was born on 28 January 1950 in Riffa, Bahrain, and received his education in Bahrain and England. He underwent military training with the British Army and later attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, graduating with a degree in leadership.

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was designated as heir apparent by his father in 1964 and held various positions in the Bahraini government and military before becoming Emir. He was appointed chairman of the irrigation council and Manama municipal council in 1968 and was commissioned into the Bahrain National Guard the following year. He served as commander-in-chief of the Bahrain Defence Force from 1969 to 1970 and then became head of the Bahraini department of defence and vice-chairman of the administrative council, remaining in both offices until 1971. From 1971 to 1988, he served as the minister of state for defence.

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became Emir of Bahrain following the death of his father, Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, in 1999. As Emir, he implemented several political reforms, including the release of all political prisoners, the dissolution of the State Security Court, and the abolition of the 1974 Decree on State Security Measures. Many Bahraini citizens who had been living in exile overseas were also allowed to return.

Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa's ascension to the throne brought an end to the 1990s uprising in Bahrain, which lasted from 1994 to 1999. The uprising was a movement for democratic reform that united leftists, liberals, and Islamists. It resulted in approximately forty deaths, including around 40 civilians and at least one Bahraini soldier. Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa's political reforms helped to restore stability to the nation, improve living standards, and make Bahrain a financial hub. In 2002, he proclaimed himself King of Bahrain, becoming a constitutional monarch.

Uprising for democratic reform

The 1990s uprising in Bahrain, also known as the Uprising of Dignity, was a five-year-long movement (1994-1999) that united leftists, liberals, and Islamists in their call for democratic reforms. The uprising, which resulted in approximately 40 deaths, ended after Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa became the Emir of Bahrain in 1999 and instituted wide-ranging social and political reforms.

The roots of the uprising can be traced back to 1975 when the Amir, Isa bin Salman al-Khalifa, suspended the constitution and dissolved the national assembly. This allowed him to implement the State Security Law, also known as the "precautionary law," which gave police broad arresting powers and allowed individuals to be imprisoned without trial or charge for up to three years based on mere suspicion. This period, known as the "State Security Law Era," saw widespread human rights violations, including arbitrary arrests, detention without trial, torture, and forced exile.

In 1992, a petition signed by 280 society leaders, including former members of the dissolved parliament, called for the restoration of the national assembly. In response, the government formed a 30-member appointed "Shura council" to comment on government-proposed legislation. However, this fell short of the petitioners' demands, and protests continued.

The uprising began in June 1994 with a picket by unemployed people in front of the Ministry of Labour, protesting the high unemployment rate of 15%. Similar incidents and petitions took place over the next few months, with organisers claiming to have collected over 20,000 signatures, most of them Shia.

In November 1994, hundreds of Shia protested against a charity marathon, considering the female runners' attire offensive. This led to clashes with security forces and a number of arrests. The following month, Ali Salman, a protest leader, was arrested, sparking further protests and violence in Manama, Riffa, and Sitra. Some protesters used Molotov cocktails to attack police stations and commercial properties, while riot police responded with tear gas and rubber bullets, sometimes fired from helicopters.

By December 1994, the number of detainees was between 500 and 600, according to the US Embassy. Protests and arrests continued, with the level of violence escalating in March and April 1995. Abdul Amir al-Jamri, the leader of the uprising, was arrested in April, along with other protest leaders.

Jailhouse negotiations between the government and opposition leaders resulted in an agreement called "the Initiative," where opposition leaders would calm the people in exchange for the release of those not convicted. However, protests resumed after the government denied the existence of such an agreement.

Bombings occurred in December 1995 and January 1996, and opposition leaders were arrested, although no charges were filed. The violence continued, with over 40 people killed, mostly by security forces. The uprising was characterised by extreme forms of suppression, riots, stoning, and bomb attacks, with most incidents occurring in Shia villages and towns.

The violence subsided after Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa ascended to the throne in 1999 and carried out political reforms. On February 14-15, 2001, a referendum was held, and Bahrainis overwhelmingly supported the National Action Charter, with 98.4% in favour. This marked a significant step towards democratic reform, as Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa instituted elections, granted women the right to vote, and released political prisoners.

National Action Charter referendum

The National Action Charter referendum was held on 14 and 15 February 2001, with an impressive voter turnout of 90.2%. The referendum was a response to the 1990s Uprising in Bahrain, which lasted from 1994 to 1999 and resulted in around 40 civilian deaths and at least one Bahraini soldier. The uprising was a movement for democratic reform, with leftists, liberals, and Islamists joining forces to demand an end to the authoritarian rule of the Al Khalifa royal family.

The National Action Charter was put forward by King Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifah in 2001, with the aim of ending the uprising and transitioning Bahrain back to constitutional rule. The Charter included proposals for a two-chamber legislature, with one chamber chosen by popular vote, and for Shaikh Hamad to become the country's first king. The Charter was overwhelmingly approved by voters, with 98.4% voting in favour.

The referendum marked a significant shift in Bahrain's political landscape, as it allowed for greater public criticism of the government and paved the way for democratic reform. However, there were concerns about the ambiguity in the language of the Charter, which suggested that it may consolidate the power of the ruling Al Khalifa family rather than establish a true "constitutional monarchy."

The approval of the National Action Charter led to constitutional amendments and a new era of reform and development in Bahrain. All laws that were in violation of the Charter's principles were abolished or amended, and the country transitioned from an emirate to a semi-constitutional monarchy in 2002. The referendum also granted women the right to vote and stand in national elections, although no women were elected to office in the 2002 polls.

Constitutional monarchy established

In 1999, Shaikh Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa became Emir of Bahrain after the death of his father, Shaikh Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa. Shaikh Hamad's accession to the throne marked the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Bahrain. He instituted wide-ranging social and political reforms, described by Amnesty International as representing a "historic period for human rights".

Shaikh Hamad ended the political repression that had defined the 1990s in Bahrain by scrapping security laws, releasing all political prisoners, instituting elections, giving women the right to vote, and promising a return to constitutional rule. The move brought an end to the political violence that was part of the 1990s uprising in Bahrain, but did not initially bring about a reconciliation between the government and most of the opposition groups.

The invitation to Bahrain's former exiles to return home revitalised the Kingdom's politics. Exiled leaders included a number of London-based Islamists, as well as leftists who formed the National Democratic Action, the Communist Democratic Bloc, and the Bahrain Human Rights Society. Shaikh Hamad's reforms also included the establishment of a 30-member Consultative Council, which was later increased to 40 members.

In 2001, Shaikh Hamad put forward the National Action Charter, which would return the country to constitutional rule. The Charter was accepted in a referendum with 98.4% voting 'Yes'. However, in 2002, Shaikh Hamad promulgated the 2002 Constitution, in which both the elected and the royally-appointed chambers of parliament were given equal legislative powers, going back on his public promise of 2001. As a result, the parliamentary elections due to be held later that year were boycotted by a group of four political societies.

In 2002, Shaikh Hamad also proclaimed himself King of Bahrain, changing the country's formal name from the State of Bahrain to the Kingdom of Bahrain.

Shia opposition wins 40% of the vote in a general election

In the 1990s, Bahrain underwent a period of political and social upheaval, with a Shia-led uprising taking place between 1994 and 1999. The Shia opposition, alongside leftists and liberals, demanded democratic reforms and the reinstatement of the 1973 constitution.

In the 1990s, the Shia opposition in Bahrain won 40% of the vote in a general election, reflecting their growing influence and discontent with the ruling Sunni monarchy. This victory was a significant development, as it demonstrated the strength of the Shia opposition and their ability to gain support from a significant portion of the Bahraini population.

The Shia opposition's success in the election was a result of their effective mobilisation and messaging, which resonated with many Bahrainis. They advocated for greater political inclusion and challenged the concentration of power within the ruling Al-Khalifa dynasty. The Shia opposition capitalised on the discontent among the Shia majority, who felt marginalised and discriminated against by the Sunni ruling family.

The election victory also had broader implications for Bahrain's political landscape. It signalled a shift in the country's political dynamics and increased tensions between the Shia opposition and the ruling Sunni monarchy. The Shia opposition's growing influence and demand for democratic reforms posed a challenge to the monarchy's power and prompted a government crackdown on dissent.

The election victory was a pivotal moment for the Shia opposition, and it set the stage for further political developments and struggles for reform in Bahrain.

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