Allies Or Adversaries? Serbia, Austria-Hungary, And The Path To War

Austria-Hungary and Serbia were not allies before 1914. In fact, the two countries had a tumultuous relationship, with Austria-Hungary occupying Serbia from 1915 until the end of World War I. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by a Serbian nationalist further escalated tensions between the two countries. On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding an inquiry into the assassination, the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda, and the elimination of terrorist organizations within Serbia. Serbia's response to the ultimatum, which accepted all terms except for one, was not enough to prevent Austria-Hungary from declaring war on July 28, 1914, marking the beginning of World War I.

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The lead-up to the assassination

Princip was part of a group of six Bosnian assassins, five of whom were Bosnian Serbs and members of a student revolutionary group that later became known as Young Bosnia. The political objective of the assassination was to free Bosnia and Herzegovina of Austria-Hungarian rule and establish a common South Slav ("Yugoslav") state. The assassins were aided by the Black Hand, a Serbian secret nationalist group with close ties to the Serbian army, which provided them with bombs, pistols, and training.

On the morning of 28 June 1914, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie departed from a spa town outside of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina's capital, where they had been staying for a few days. They had received multiple warnings to cancel the trip, and the Archduke was aware of the potential danger. However, the couple proceeded with their plans and boarded a train for the short ride into Sarajevo. For once, Sophie was permitted to walk alongside Ferdinand during a brief troop inspection, after which they got into an open-topped car for a motorcade ride to the city hall.

The assassination

Meanwhile, seven Young Bosnians had positioned themselves along the Appel Quay, a main avenue in Sarajevo. As the motorcade passed by, one of the assassins, Nedeljko Cabrinovic, threw a bomb at the car, but it bounced off and rolled underneath the wrong vehicle. The subsequent explosion wounded two army officers and several bystanders but left the Archduke and his wife unharmed. Cabrinovic attempted to kill himself but was apprehended by the police. The motorcade then continued on to the city hall, and the Archduke and his wife later insisted on visiting the wounded officers in the hospital.

As the motorcade attempted to reverse back onto the Appel Quay, Princip whipped out his pistol and fired two shots at the Archduke from point-blank range, piercing him in the neck and also striking Sophie's abdomen. Within minutes, both had passed away. Princip, who was too young to receive the death penalty, was sentenced to 20 years in prison but died of tuberculosis in April 1918 at the age of 23.

The aftermath

Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia

On the evening of July 23, 1914, almost a month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, by a young Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, in Sarajevo, Bosnia, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia. The ultimatum was delivered by the ambassador of the Austro-Hungarian Empire to Serbia, Baron Giesl von Gieslingen, to the Serbian foreign ministry.

The ultimatum was issued with the full support of Austria-Hungary's allies in Berlin, and it was designed to force a military conflict that Vienna hoped would end swiftly and decisively before the rest of Europe, particularly Serbia's powerful ally, Russia, could react. The ultimatum included six points, which were intentionally made unacceptable to provoke a war with Serbia:

• The Serbian government was required to officially distance itself from the political campaign to unite the southern Slav peoples under Serbian leadership, which challenged the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary.
• The purging of the Serbian army and civil service of anti-Austrian agitators.
• The suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda in the Serbian press.
• The tracking down and legal proceedings against extremist secret organisations operating against Austria, including the Black Hand, which was believed to have aided Franz Ferdinand's assassins.
• The participation of Austrian officials in the investigation and prosecution of the ringleaders on Serbian territory, which would infringe on Serbia's state sovereignty.
• Serbia was given 48 hours to respond to the ultimatum.

Serbia was angered by the ultimatum and sought assistance from Russia and its leader, Tsar Nicholas II. The members of the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia) recognised that the terms of the ultimatum were harsh. Serbia was particularly insulted by the demand that Austrian officials be allowed to enter the country to investigate the assassination, as it viewed itself as a sovereign nation.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum effectively accepted all terms except the demand that Austrian officials participate in the investigation on Serbian territory, stating that this would violate its constitution and criminal procedure law. This response appealed to international observers, but it made little difference to Vienna. As a result, Austria-Hungary broke diplomatic relations with Serbia and declared war on July 28, 1914, marking the beginning of World War I.

The mobilisation of troops

On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I. In the days leading up to this declaration, both sides mobilised their troops.

Austria-Hungary's mobilisation was slow, and it did not deliver its ultimatum to Serbia until 23 July, almost a month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The ultimatum was intentionally designed to be unacceptable to Serbia, and it included demands such as the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda and the allowance of an Austrian investigation into the assassination. Serbia accepted all demands except one, and Austria-Hungary broke off diplomatic relations on 25 July.

Serbia's mobilisation was swift. The Serbian military command issued orders to mobilise on 25 July, and troops began to be deployed the following day. By 30 July, mobilisation was complete, and troops were deployed according to the war plan.

Russia, an ally of Serbia, also began to mobilise its troops in support of Serbia. On 24 July, Russia ordered a partial mobilisation of over one million men. On 25 July, Russia's Council of Ministers met and decided to put further pressure on Serbia to accept the ultimatum, while also agreeing to a secret partial mobilisation of its army. On 26 July, Russia announced that it could not remain "uninterested" if Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. On 28 July, the same day that Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia ordered a general mobilisation.

On 29 July, Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, asked Russia to stop its mobilisation. When Russia did not comply, Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August 1914.

The declaration of war

On July 28, 1914, exactly one month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, marking the beginning of World War I. This declaration came after a series of events that escalated tensions between the two countries.

On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated in Sarajevo by a Bosnian Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip. This assassination sparked a chain of events that led to the declaration of war.

Austria-Hungary, with the full support of its ally Germany, pursued a hard-line policy towards Serbia. They aimed to force a military conflict that would end quickly with a crushing Austrian victory before Serbia's powerful ally, Russia, could react. On July 23, 1914, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding an inquiry into the assassination, the suppression of anti-Austrian propaganda, and the elimination of terrorist organizations within Serbia. The ultimatum was intentionally made unacceptable to provoke a war, as Serbia was given only 48 hours to respond.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum effectively accepted all terms except for one: they refused to allow Austro-Hungarian officials to participate in internal investigations, citing violations of their Constitution and criminal procedure law. Despite Serbia's willingness to comply with most demands, this single rejection was enough for Austria-Hungary to break off diplomatic relations.

The invasion of Serbia

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914, marking the beginning of World War I. This came exactly one month after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife were assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo. Threatened by Serbian ambition in the Balkans, Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum on July 23, 1914, demanding, among other things, that all anti-Austrian propaganda within Serbia be suppressed. Although Serbia accepted all of the demands except one, Austria-Hungary broke diplomatic relations and began preparing for a military invasion.

The first invasion of Serbia, dubbed a "punitive expedition" by the Austro-Hungarian leadership, was commanded by Austrian General Oskar Potiorek and began on August 12, 1914, when the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army crossed the Drina River. This initial invasion of Serbia lasted only thirteen days, as the Austro-Hungarian forces were repelled by the Serbians and their Montenegrin allies. The Royal Serbian Army's victory at the Battle of Cer is considered the first Allied victory of World War I.

The Austro-Hungarians launched a second invasion in September 1914, engaging all their forces and outnumbering the Serbs, who were short on munitions. Despite fierce Serbian resistance, the Austro-Hungarian forces managed to capture Valjevo and Belgrade by November 1914, forcing the Royal Serbian Army to retreat. However, in early December, the Serbs launched a counterattack, defeating the Austro-Hungarians at the Battle of Kolubara and recapturing Belgrade. The Austro-Hungarian forces suffered a significant blow to their pride and were dealt a further blow by a typhoid epidemic, which decimated their army and the civilian population.

In October 1915, Austria-Hungary, together with Germany and Bulgaria, launched a joint invasion of Serbia, marking their fourth attempt to conquer the country. This offensive succeeded in occupying Serbia by January 1916, with Bulgaria attacking from the east while the Austro-Hungarian and German forces breached the Serbian front from the north and west. Serbia was then divided into occupation zones, with the Austro-Hungarian zone covering the northern three-quarters of the country. The occupation was marked by harsh measures, including the establishment of concentration camps, the deportation of civilians, and the exploitation of economic resources. The occupation lasted until the end of World War I, when Serbia was liberated by Allied forces in September 1918.

Frequently asked questions