The Austrian Succession: A Complex War Of Thrones

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) was a major conflict in Europe, sparked by the death of Emperor Charles VI and the subsequent debate over his daughter Maria Theresa's right to succeed him as ruler of the Habsburg monarchy. The war involved many of the great powers of Europe, including Prussia, France, Britain, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and Russia, showcasing the shifting alliances and power dynamics of the time. The conflict was fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, and at sea in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which confirmed Maria Theresa's right to the throne but failed to resolve underlying tensions, setting the stage for future conflicts such as the Seven Years' War.

The First Silesian War (1740-1742)

The First Silesian War was fought mainly in Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia (the lands of the Bohemian Crown) and formed one theatre of the wider War of the Austrian Succession. There was no particular triggering event for the war, but Prussia cited its centuries-old dynastic claims on parts of Silesia as a casus belli. Realpolitik and geostrategic factors also played a role in provoking the conflict.

The war began with a Prussian invasion of Habsburg Silesia in late 1740. The Prussian force consisted of two corps totalling 27,000 soldiers, while Silesia was defended by an Austrian garrison of only 8,000 men. The Austrians were able to offer only light resistance and garrison a few fortresses; the Prussians swept through the province, taking control of the capital at Breslau without a fight on 2 January 1741. By the end of January 1741, almost the entirety of Silesia had come under Prussian control, and the remaining Austrian strongholds of Glogau, Brieg and Neisse were besieged.

In late March, an Austrian force of around 20,000 under the command of Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg crossed the Sudetes mountains from Moravia and broke the siege of Neisse on 5 April, after which the main Prussian force manoeuvred to oppose its advance. The two armies engaged each other near the village of Mollwitz on 10 April, where the Prussians under Marshal Kurt von Schwerin successfully stopped the Austrian advance in the Battle of Mollwitz.

After Mollwitz, other powers were emboldened to attack the beleaguered monarchy, widening the conflict into what became the War of the Austrian Succession. As Bavaria, Saxony, France, Naples and Spain attacked Austria on multiple fronts during the succeeding months, Frederick began secret peace negotiations with Maria Theresa, with British urging and mediation. On 9 October Austria and Prussia agreed to a secret armistice known as the Convention of Klein Schnellendorf, under which Austria committed to eventually concede Lower Silesia in return for peace.

In December 1741, Prussian forces advanced into Moravia, occupying the capital at Olmütz, and besieged the fortress at Glatz on the edge of Bohemia. In February 1742, Frederick organised a joint advance through Moravia toward Vienna with the Saxons and French, but Prussia's allies were reluctant and uncooperative, and the campaign was abandoned in April, after which the Prussians withdrew into Bohemia and Upper Silesia.

An Austrian counter-advance into Bohemia engaged Frederick's Prussians on 17 May and was narrowly defeated at the resulting Battle of Chotusitz. This defeat left Austria with no immediate means of driving its enemies out of Bohemia, and renewed peace talks with Prussia began in Breslau. Under British pressure, Austria agreed to cede to Prussia the large majority of Silesia, along with the County of Glatz in Bohemia, while Austria would retain two small portions of the extreme southern end of Silesia, including the Duchy of Teschen and parts of the Duchies of Jägerndorf, Troppau and Neisse. Prussia also agreed to take on some of Austria's debts and to remain neutral for the remainder of the ongoing war. This peace agreement was adopted with the Treaty of Breslau, which ended the First Silesian War on 11 June 1742, and was later formalised in the Treaty of Berlin.

The Second Silesian War (1744-1745)

The Second Silesian War began with a Prussian invasion of Habsburg Bohemia in mid-1744 and ended in a Prussian victory with the Treaty of Dresden in December 1745, which confirmed Prussian control of Silesia. The conflict has been viewed as a continuation of the First Silesian War, which had concluded just two years prior.

In late 1743 and early 1744, Prussia conducted negotiations with France, Bavaria, and other German princes to build a coalition to support Emperor Charles VII. On 22 May 1744, Prussia formed an alliance with Bavaria, Sweden, Hesse-Kassel, and the Electoral Palatinate, known as the League of Frankfurt, whose announced aim was to recover and defend the territories of Emperor Charles VII, including Bohemia. A parallel treaty with France was concluded on 5 June, under which France committed to support the League and attack the Austrian Netherlands.

On 15 August 1744, King Frederick II of Prussia led Prussian soldiers across the frontier into Bohemia. The invading army of around 70,000 men entered Bohemia in three columns, converging on Prague by the beginning of September. The city underwent a week of heavy artillery bombardment, eventually surrendering to the Prussians on 16 September.

Frederick left a modest garrison in Prague and quickly marched south, occupying Tábor, České Budějovice, and Hluboká. As expected, this new threat drew the Austrian army under Prince Charles back from Alsace through Bavaria. The French, however, failed to harass and disrupt the Austrian redeployment, as they had promised. Consequently, Prince Charles's army was able to return to Bohemia quickly and in good order. Austrian diplomats also persuaded Saxony to re-enter the conflict on Austria's side, though in a strictly defensive role. By early October, the Austrians were advancing through southwestern Bohemia toward Prague, while a Saxon army marched from the northwest to support them.

Learning of the Austrians' rapid approach and unexpected strength, Frederick began pulling his forces back from southeastern Bohemia to face the oncoming foes. By early November, the Prussians were forced to retreat to Prague and the Elbe, and after some weeks of manoeuvring, an Austrian-Saxon force crossed the Elbe on 19 November. At this point, the Prussians abandoned Prague and gave up Bohemia, retreating in poor morale into Upper Silesia, which they defended through the winter against Austrian incursions.

On 8 January 1745, Austria further strengthened its diplomatic position with the Treaty of Warsaw, which established a new "Quadruple Alliance" between Austria, Britain-Hanover, Saxony, and the Dutch Republic, aimed at opposing the League of Frankfurt and restoring the traditional borders of the Habsburg Monarchy. In March 1745, Austria renewed its offensive against Bavaria, swiftly overrunning the defences that had been re-established during the winter. On 15 April, the Austrians decisively defeated the Franco-Bavarian army at the Battle of Pfaffenhofen and drove the allied forces entirely out of Bavaria. After this defeat, Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria, made peace with Maria Theresa by the Treaty of Füssen on 22 April.

Having made peace with Bavaria, in late April, Austria prepared for a large-scale invasion of Silesia, moving the army of Charles of Lorraine into Moravia, while a Saxon army organised near Leipzig. At the end of May, the Austrian-Saxon force crossed through the Giant Mountains and camped around the Silesian village of Hohenfriedberg, where Frederick staged a surprise attack on the morning of 4 June. The ensuing Battle of Hohenfriedberg ended in a decisive Prussian victory, sending Prince Charles's army retreating in disarray back into the mountains.

Austria's reversal at Hohenfriedberg removed any immediate prospect of recovering Silesia. The Prussians followed the retreating Austrian-Saxon army into Bohemia, harassing its rear as far as Königgrätz, where the two forces camped on opposite sides of the Elbe. The armies faced off but fought little during the next two months, while Frederick pursued a peace agreement that would again guarantee his control of Silesia. On 25 December 1745, the Treaty of Dresden was signed, ending the Second Silesian War between Austria, Saxony, and Prussia.

The War of Jenkins' Ear (1739-1748)

The War of Jenkins' Ear was a conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and Great Britain, which took place from 1739 to 1748. It was sparked by an incident in 1738, in which Captain Robert Jenkins, a British captain, had his ear cut off by Spanish coast guards. This incident, along with other Spanish outrages on British ships, caused public outrage in Britain and led to the war.

The war was also influenced by the illicit trade carried out by British merchants with Spanish colonies. Spain was unhappy with this trade and had also claimed territory in Georgia, which the British had established as a colony in 1732. Despite attempts at negotiation, tensions between the two countries remained high, and Britain formally declared war on Spain in October 1739.

The War of Jenkins' Ear eventually merged into the wider War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). This was a conflict over the succession of Maria Theresa to the Austrian Habsburg crown. Prussia, France, Bavaria, Spain, and Saxony sought to exploit the succession struggle to acquire Habsburg possessions and diminish Austrian power. They were opposed by Austria, Britain, the United Provinces, and Russia. The war was fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, and at sea in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.

The War of Jenkins' Ear had significant consequences for the balance of power in Europe. It drove Spain into an alliance with France, which would have dire consequences for British foreign policy over the next ninety years. The war also demonstrated the fighting qualities of the British Army, as shown in their victories at Dettingen and Fontenoy. However, the British also suffered defeats, such as at the Battle of Lauffeld, and ultimately withdrew their army to deal with the Jacobite Rebellion at home.

The First Carnatic War (1746-1748)

In 1745, a British fleet appeared on the Coromandel Coast, capturing a few French ships. The French called for backup from as far as Mauritius, and in 1746, a French squadron arrived under Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, the governor of Mauritius. The French captured Madras, a major British settlement, almost without any opposition, and the British were made prisoners of war. This included Robert Clive, who later escaped and participated in the defence of Cuddalore and the siege of Pondicherry.

The Nawab of Arcot, who had initially remained impartial, now marched with 10,000 soldiers to drive the British out of Madras but was defeated. The French then attempted to capture the British outpost at Cuddalore but were repelled. In 1748, the British, under Admiral Edward Boscawen, besieged Pondicherry, but the siege was lifted with the arrival of the monsoon rains.

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of the Austrian Succession in Europe and brought the First Carnatic War to a close. Madras was returned to the British in exchange for the fortress of Louisbourg in North America. The French retained their position as protectors of the Nizams of Hyderabad.

The Russo-Swedish War (1741-1743)

The Russo-Swedish War of 1741–1743, also known as the War of the Hats, was instigated by the Hats, a Swedish political party that wanted to regain territories lost to Russia during the Great Northern War. The war was also encouraged by French diplomacy, which sought to divert Russia's attention from its support of the Habsburg monarchy in the War of the Austrian Succession.

The war was a disaster for Sweden, which lost more territory to Russia. The Swedish war plan was to first capture Vyborg and then advance towards Saint Petersburg. However, due to a lack of preparation and poor coordination between their naval and land forces, the Swedes were unable to mount an effective offensive. The Russians seized the initiative and scored a major victory at the Battle of Villmanstrand, where they used their numerical superiority to defeat the Swedish garrison. Despite attempts by the Swedes to regroup and launch a new offensive, their efforts were hampered by the inactivity of their fleet and the harsh winter conditions.

In 1742, the main Swedish fleet arrived under Admiral Sjöstierna, but the Russians also had a large fleet in the area, commanded by General Vasily Yakovlevich Levashov and Admiral Zahar Danilovich Mishukov. The Swedish army remained inactive, and the Russians seized the initiative once again. With the support of a Russian galley fleet, a 30,000-strong Russian army under Field Marshal Lacy marched from Vyborg and advanced towards Frederikshamn. The Swedes had prepared defensive positions outside Frederikshamn, but the defending colonel withdrew from these positions before the Russian attack, leaving the town vulnerable. On 28 June, the Swedish army under Lewenhaupt set the town on fire and began withdrawing. The Swedish withdrawal lasted nearly two months and ended in Helsingfors on 11 August. A couple of days later, the Russians had completely surrounded the town.

The Swedish galley fleet was stationed east of Helsingfors but withdrew into the town, allowing the Russians to complete the encirclement. Before the encirclement was complete, the Swedish generals Lewenhaupt and Buddenbrock were summoned to Stockholm for an inquiry and were subsequently imprisoned and placed on trial. The deputy commander of the Swedish forces, General Jean Louis Bousquet, signed a surrender document on 24 August. The Finnish men were released from the army, while the Swedish men were allowed to sail back home. All guns, supplies, and even fodder stores were handed over to the Russians.

The territory ceded to Russia was added to the Russian Governorate of Vyborg and later incorporated into the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812. The war marked the further decline of Sweden as a great power in Northern Europe.

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