Austria's War Declaration: The Role Of The French King

The French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted from 1792 to 1802, were a series of sweeping military conflicts resulting from the French Revolution. In April 1792, France declared war on Austria, which was followed by Prussia's declaration of war on France in June 1792. This marked the beginning of the War of the First Coalition, which lasted until 1797. The war pitted France against several European powers, including Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The conflict was driven by various factors, including anti-revolutionary paranoia in Europe, foreign concerns about the fate of King Louis XVI, and belligerent propaganda. The war had a profound impact on the new French society and shaped the course of European history, leading to the Napoleonic Wars and lasting over two decades.

Leopold II's reign and views on the French Revolution

Leopold II was the penultimate Holy Roman Emperor, as well as King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, and Archduke of Austria from 1790 to 1792. He was the brother of Queen Marie Antoinette of France, and so was particularly interested in the events of the French Revolution.

Leopold was a moderate proponent of enlightened absolutism. He was unusual for his time in that he opposed the death penalty and torture, abolishing capital punishment in Tuscany in 1786. He was also a patron of the arts, particularly Italian opera.

Leopold's reign as Holy Roman Emperor was short, lasting only from 1790 to 1792. Initially, he was ambivalent about the French Revolution, but as it became more radical, he became concerned that the revolutionary spirit might spread across Europe and beyond. In 1791, he and King Frederick William II of Prussia issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which expressed concern about the developments in France and threatened consequences if anything should happen to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. Leopold's intention was to avoid war, but the Declaration was seen as a serious threat in France and was denounced by the revolutionary leaders.

Leopold's primary goal was to end the war with the Turks, which he believed would relieve domestic pressures and allow him to implement his reform program. He was successful in this endeavour, signing the Treaty of Sistova in August 1791. Leopold also planned to introduce a measure of popular representation into the Habsburg government, which may have given the monarchy greater stability as it encountered the challenges of industrialization, nationalism, liberalism, and democracy in the coming century. However, his premature death in March 1792 meant that these plans never came to fruition.

Following Leopold's death, France declared war on Austria in April 1792, initiating the French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted until 1802.

The Declaration of Pillnitz

Leopold was concerned about the safety of his sister, Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, and wanted to protect the interests of the monarchy. However, he did not intend to go to war with France and carefully worded the declaration to avoid committing Austria to military action. The declaration stated that Austria would go to war only if all the other major European powers also went to war with France, knowing that this was unlikely as the British prime minister, William Pitt, did not support war.

The declaration was intended to serve as a warning to the French revolutionaries to stop infringing on the king's prerogatives and to allow him to resume his powers. However, it was perceived as a threat by the National Assembly of France, which interpreted it as a declaration of war and used it as a pretext to radicalise the revolutionaries and increase tensions. The declaration ultimately contributed to France's declaration of war against Austria on 20 April 1792, marking the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars.

The Padua Circular

The circular stated that the king's attempt to escape was "most certain proof of the state of confinement in which he has found himself" and that he had been forced to "do violence to his religion in several respects". It went on to say that the "formal arrest" of the king, queen, the Dauphin, and Madame Elizabeth inspired "legitimate fears concerning the ulterior undertakings of the dominant party".

Leopold demanded that the royal family be set free immediately and that their "inviolability and respect" be recognised. He also stated that he would "unite to avenge in a forceful manner" any future outrages committed against the security, person, and honour of the royal family.

The other powers of Europe did not respond enthusiastically to the Padua Circular, and so there was no basis for collective action on behalf of the French king. However, the circular did represent a significant step towards the formation of a coalition against France, which would eventually lead to the French Revolutionary Wars.

The Girondin case for war

The Girondins wanted war in 1791-92 for several reasons. They believed that a war would militarise and energise the revolution, providing it with direction and impetus, and distracting from domestic economic problems. It would also consolidate their own power, ignite French patriotism, and reinvigorate revolutionary sentiment. They were confident that France could win such a war, as Austria was weak and its new leader, Leopold II, was reluctant to fight. Prussia, a rival of Austria, was unlikely to join a coalition, and Britain, Russia, and Sweden had their own problems.

Some Girondins also believed that a revolutionary war would become a "crusade for universal liberty", as put by Jacques Brissot. Brissot argued that French soldiers would not be cutting the throats of their enemies but instead freeing them from the yoke under which they laboured, and showing them the road to happiness.

The French Revolutionary Wars

As early as 1791, the monarchies of Europe considered intervening in the French Revolution, either in support of King Louis XVI, to prevent the spread of revolution, or to take advantage of the chaos in France. Austria stationed significant troops on its border with France and, together with Prussia, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which threatened severe consequences should anything happen to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette. In response, France declared war on Austria and Prussia in the spring of 1792. Both countries responded with a coordinated invasion that was eventually turned back at the Battle of Valmy in September.

In 1794, the situation improved dramatically for the French as huge victories at Fleurus against the Austrians and Dutch, and at the Black Mountain against the Spanish, signaled a new stage in the wars. By 1795, the French had captured the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, and put Spain and Prussia out of the war with the Peace of Basel. A hitherto unknown general named Napoleon Bonaparte began his first campaign in Italy in April 1796. In less than a year, French armies under Napoleon destroyed the Habsburg forces and evicted them from the Italian peninsula, winning almost every battle and capturing 150,000 prisoners. With French forces marching on Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace and agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the First Coalition against the Republic.

The War of the Second Coalition began in 1798 with the French invasion of Egypt, headed by Napoleon. The Allies took the opportunity presented by the French effort in the Middle East to regain territories lost during the First Coalition. The war began well for the Allies in Europe, where they gradually pushed the French out of Italy and invaded Switzerland, winning several battles along the way. However, their efforts unraveled with the French victory at Zurich in September 1799, which caused Russia to drop out of the war. Meanwhile, Napoleon's forces annihilated a series of Egyptian and Ottoman armies at the battles of the Pyramids, Mount Tabor, and Abukir. These victories in Egypt further enhanced Napoleon's popularity back in France, and he returned in triumph in the autumn of 1799.

Napoleon reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the Austrians in Italy during the spring of 1800. This brought a decisive French victory at the Battle of Marengo in June 1800, after which the Austrians withdrew from the peninsula once again. Another crushing French triumph at Hohenlinden in Bavaria forced the Austrians to seek peace for a second time, leading to the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801. With Austria and Russia out of the war, Britain found itself increasingly isolated and agreed to the Treaty of Amiens with Napoleon's government in 1802, concluding the Revolutionary Wars.

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