Austria's Neutrality In Wwii: A Complex History

Austria's role in World War II is a complex issue. In a strict sense, Austria did not exist as an independent entity when the war began in September 1939, as it had been annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938. However, this does not mean that Austrians did not participate in the war. Approximately 950,000 Austrians fought for the Nazi German armed forces, and many others served in the Nazi administration, including senior leadership positions. After the war, the Allies declared Austria independent from Nazi Germany and divided it into four occupation zones. The issue of Austria's neutrality in World War II is further complicated by the fact that, while Austrians did support and participate in the war effort, there was also a small but significant resistance movement against the Nazis within the country.

Austria's role in the Nazi war machine

Austria officially declared neutrality in 1955 and has maintained this stance through to the present day. However, during World War II, Austria played a significant, yet complex, role in the Nazi war machine. This role was deeply intertwined with Germany, and the two countries shared a history that influenced their actions during the war.

Austria was annexed by Germany in 1938, an event known as the "Anschluss." This union was enthusiastically welcomed by many Austrians, who shared a strong cultural and ethnic connection with Germans and supported the Nazi regime. This sentiment was not universal, and some Austrians opposed the annexation, but their resistance was largely ineffective in the face of Nazi propaganda and intimidation tactics.

The Anschluss brought about significant changes in Austria, as the country quickly became integrated into Nazi Germany's political, economic, and military systems. Austrian industries became an integral part of the German war machine, with many factories producing weapons, ammunition, and other military equipment. Austrian workers, including forced laborers and prisoners of war, contributed significantly to the Nazi war effort.

Austria also provided a significant number of soldiers for the German army. Many Austrians volunteered for military service, driven by a mix of ideological support for Nazism, economic incentives, and coercion. Austrian troops fought on various fronts, including the Eastern Front, North Africa, and the Battle of Britain. Several high-ranking Austrian officers held important positions within the Wehrmacht (German armed forces) and played key roles in planning and executing military strategies.

In addition to its military contributions, Austria was also central to the ideological foundations of Nazism. Adolf Hitler was born in Austria and spent his formative years in the country. He joined a Viennese regiment during World War I and later praised the multi-ethnic nature of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which he saw as a model for his vision of a pan-Germanic state. Vienna, with its rich cultural history, was considered by Hitler as a crucial city for the Nazi movement, and he sought to make it the capital of a future "Greater German Reich."

Despite Austria's integral role in the Nazi war machine, the country did experience some resistance to Nazi rule, particularly in the form of small, clandestine groups. These resistance efforts, however, were largely fragmented and lacked the strength to pose a significant threat to the Nazi regime. Overall, Austria's complex history and relationship with Germany played a critical role in shaping the country's involvement in World War II, and the aftermath of the war had lasting impacts on Austria's path toward neutrality.

The Moscow Declaration of 1943

The Four-Nation Declaration

The United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China reaffirmed their determination to continue fighting against the Axis powers until they achieved their unconditional surrender. They also recognised the need to establish a general international organisation, which later became the United Nations, to maintain international peace and security. This organisation would be based on the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states, regardless of size.

Declaration on Italy

In the declaration regarding Italy, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union agreed on the need to completely eradicate fascism and its influence in Italy. They emphasised that the Italian people should be given the opportunity to establish democratic institutions and enjoy fundamental freedoms, including freedom of speech, religion, political belief, press, and public assembly. Additionally, they outlined specific measures to achieve these goals, such as including anti-fascists in the Italian government and creating democratic organs of local government.

Declaration on Austria

This section of the Moscow Declaration addressed the status of Austria, which had been annexed (Anschluss) by Germany in 1938. The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union declared that this annexation was null and void and that they wished to establish a free and independent Austria. They recognised Austria as the first country to fall victim to Hitler's aggression but also held Austria responsible for its participation in the war alongside Germany. This declaration set the stage for the liberation of Austria from German domination and the establishment of its independence.

Statement on Atrocities

The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union expressed their outrage at the atrocities, massacres, and mass executions perpetrated by Hitler's forces in occupied countries. They declared that, following any armistice with Germany, German individuals suspected of involvement in these crimes would be sent back to the affected countries for trial and punishment. This statement reflected the determination of the Allies to hold accountable those responsible for wartime atrocities.

Soviet occupation of Austria

In the aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones, jointly occupied by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, the United States, and France. The Soviet Union's occupation zone included Burgenland, Lower Austria, and the Mühlviertel area of Upper Austria, north of the Danube.

The Soviet occupation of Austria was shaped by the Moscow Declaration of 1943, in which the British, Americans, and Soviets proclaimed that Austria was the first victim of Nazi Germany, but that it would also have to pay the price for its participation in Nazi aggression. This declaration ultimately led to Austria's independence, as agreed upon by the Allies.

The Red Army occupied only parts of Austria, including its capital, Vienna, which was captured in April 1945. The Soviet troops then advanced towards Linz and Graz in early May. Skirmishes between the Red Army and German soldiers continued into late May, even after the fighting had ceased elsewhere in Europe. The Red Army suffered significant casualties in Austria, with 26,006 killed and 68,179 wounded.

During the occupation, the Soviets adhered to the general line that Austria was a victim of Germany, which resulted in more lenient treatment compared to other defeated Axis powers. Austria did not lose any territory, and its citizens avoided the fate of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe who were expelled or deported to the Soviet Union for slave labour. Additionally, the Western Allies successfully opposed the Kremlin's plans to impose heavy war reparations on Austria.

However, the Western Allies consented to Moscow's demand for control over German assets in Austria within their zone. This resulted in significant financial burdens for Austria, as local governments were obliged to feed and clothe the Red Army. Moscow also deployed NKVD (Soviet secret police) teams to extract reparations through seizures of industrial plants and production installations.

The Soviet occupation policies in Austria were marked by political violence and repression. In the initial eight months of occupation, Soviet military tribunals arrested around 800 Austrian civilians, with charges ranging from belonging to the Nazi resistance to espionage, maltreatment of POWs, and war crimes. By 1955, when the Red Army withdrew from the country, the Soviets had arrested 2,400 Austrians, with approximately 150 executed and others receiving lengthy prison sentences.

The sexual violence and looting committed by Soviet troops also caused significant distress among Austrians. The Soviet leadership attempted to prevent these crimes through propaganda, but the troops' sense of victory and desire for retribution often led to violations of standing policies. The scale of political violence in Austria was more limited compared to other countries occupied by the Red Army, as Moscow did not fully control Austria and it was not a high priority for geopolitical reasons.

The Soviet occupation of Austria lasted from 1945 until 1955, when the country regained its independence and neutrality in the Cold War. The Soviets withdrew their troops, and Austria pledged to remain neutral and not seek unification with other German-speaking nations.

Austrian resistance to Nazism

Armed Resistance

The Austrian Freedom Front, led by the Communist leader Franz Honner and supported by the USSR, was the only armed movement in Austria by the end of the war. The group also established close cooperation with Tito's partisans, and two Austrian battalions fought alongside them.

The Koralmpartisanen was a league of 200-300 fighters whose activities extended from 1944 to Western Styria. They attacked infrastructure facilities such as municipal offices and gendarmerie, and sabotaged militarily important facilities such as bridges and railways.

Another resistance group founded in 1941 by Wolfgang Pfaundler and Hubert Sauerwein in Ötztal consisted of around 50 people.

Support for Jewish Families

Numerous individuals provided support to Jewish families during the Holocaust, including hiding individuals, managing or exchanging their property, and aiding their escape from Nazi persecution. These actions carried immense personal risk, as assisting Jews was punishable by imprisonment or death in Nazi concentration camps.

Distribution of Counter-Nazi Leaflets

The Austrian resistance maintained organizational cohesion by issuing counter-Nazi political leaflets and collecting donations, which were mostly distributed to the families of those arrested.

The Austrian victim theory

The victim theory was widely accepted in Austria, with 99.7% of Austrians voting to join the German Reich in a 1938 plebiscite. However, in the decades following World War II, many Austrians came to see the annexation as an "unwanted Anschluss" and embraced the idea that their country had been Hitler's first victim. This perception helped shape Austria's policy on dealing with its history for decades and influenced the way Nazism was interpreted in the country.

The theory had significant implications for how Austria addressed its role in the war and its responsibility for Nazi crimes. It allowed Austrians to deflect guilt and shift blame onto Germany and/or a close circle of leaders surrounding Hitler. This interpretation marginalised the victims of Nazism and hindered restitution and compensation efforts for survivors of the Holocaust and other Nazi atrocities.

However, the victim theory began to unravel in the mid-1980s due to several factors. Firstly, the affair surrounding the federal presidential candidate Kurt Waldheim sparked a national debate on Austria's role in the Holocaust. Secondly, the voices of Holocaust survivors around the world, such as Felix Brown, played a crucial role in challenging the theory. Finally, in two highly acclaimed speeches before the Austrian National Council and the Israeli Knesset in 1991 and 1993, respectively, Federal Chancellor Franz Vranitzky acknowledged Austria's shared responsibility for Nazi crimes. These events led to a reassessment of Austria's post-war restitution and compensation programs and a shift in the country's narrative and identity.

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