Bolivia's Political Landscape: Dictatorship Or Democracy?

Bolivia has had a tumultuous history, with various military dictatorships ruling the country between 1964 and 1982. During this period, the country experienced violent instability, with different military administrations and frequent coups. The Bolivian people faced brutal state repression, violence, and human rights violations. The dictatorships targeted workers, union leaders, student organizations, and leftist politicians, forcing them into exile or underground resistance. Civil resistance played a crucial role in challenging these dictatorships and demanding the return of democracy.

In recent years, concerns have been raised about a potential shift towards a right-wing military dictatorship in Bolivia. In 2019, the self-declared presidency of Jeanine Áñez, following the ousting of the country's first Indigenous president, Evo Morales, brought back memories of the country's past dictatorships. Security forces carried out massacres of Indigenous protesters, and a decree exempting the police and military from criminal responsibility raised concerns about state-sanctioned violence and racism against the Indigenous majority.

The current political situation in Bolivia, including the path the country will take towards democracy or dictatorship, remains a topic of discussion and uncertainty.

The Bolivian National Revolution

The MNR, a powerful national opposition party that had formed in the 1940s, led the revolt against the military junta. On April 9, 1952, supporters of the revolution announced on state radio that they had succeeded. The La Paz police force, under the direction of General Seleme and Donato Millán (who had secretly supported the MNR), had taken control of the city. However, it was unclear if they could hold their ground against the approaching army units led by General Torres Ortiz. The situation looked grim for the revolutionaries when they discovered that the supply of weapons and ammunition they had been counting on was not in the state arsenal.

Despite the odds, the MNR had deep support, and armed worker militias appeared to fight the army. The Bolivian army, made up of young conscripts, had little allegiance to the government and were persuaded to change sides. In just a few days of fighting, the Bolivian army was either defeated or defected to the side of the revolutionaries. Bolivia was now in the hands of a radical political movement with popular support and the legitimacy of having won the last election.

The revolution brought about significant changes. Universal suffrage was established, drastically increasing the number of eligible voters. The armed forces were purged and reduced in size and budget, and the government moved to nationalize the mines of the three major tin companies, turning two-thirds of the mining industry over to the state-owned Mining Corporation of Bolivia (Comibol). A far-reaching agrarian reform was also enacted, abolishing forced labour and expropriating and redistributing rural property to indigenous peasants.

The revolution was not without its challenges and setbacks. The divisions within the MNR, economic problems, and high inflation impacted the country. The influence of the miners and peasants, while crucial to the revolution's success, also created tensions and contributed to the polarization within the MNR. Despite these challenges, the Bolivian National Revolution of 1952 marked a significant turning point in the country's history, seeking to address social injustices and economic dependence.

Military juntas

Bolivia has been ruled by multiple military juntas or committees of military leaders. A junta often comes to power as a result of a coup d'état, either formally taking power or wielding power by exercising control over a nominally civilian government. This is known as "open rule" and "disguised rule", respectively.

The history of Bolivia from 1964 to 1982 was a time of instability under various military dictators. On November 4, 1964, power passed from the elected leader of the Bolivian National Revolution, Víctor Paz Estenssoro, to a military junta under vice-president General René Barrientos. Barrientos was elected president in 1966 but died in a helicopter crash in 1969, leading to a series of military overthrows until 1971, when Hugo Banzer Suárez took power. Banzer ruled for seven years, initially with the support of Estenssoro's Nationalist Revolutionary Movement.

In 1974, impatient with schisms in the party, Banzer replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. Although the economy grew impressively during his presidency, demands for greater political freedom undercut his support, and he was forced to call elections in 1978. The period from 1978 to 1982 saw nine civilian and military presidents in just four years.

In 1980, General Luis García Meza achieved a military dictatorship by assassinating the socialist leader Marcelo Quiroga Santa Cruz and massacring dozens of Indigenous miners. This was followed by the rule of the Junta of Commanders of the Armed Forces from August 4, 1981, to September 4, 1981, consisting of Commander of the Bolivian Air Force, General Waldo Bernal Pereira; General of the Bolivian Army, Celso Torrelio; and Óscar Jaime Pammo, a Rear Admiral in the Bolivian Navy.

The rule of military juntas in Bolivia was characterized by state terror, human rights abuses, and violence against Indigenous people. The period from 1964 to 1982 saw more than 200 people murdered and 150 forcibly disappeared. Transitional justice and reparations for victims and their families have been slow and inadequate.

Civil resistance

In Bolivia, once the military dictatorships were in power, they began to target workers, union leaders, student organizations, and leftist politicians, driving them underground and into exile. State violence was used to repress opposition groups from all sectors, including the press. Security forces, including paramilitary groups, were responsible for a series of kidnappings, torture, and killings of activists.

To curb the state violence, union workers, miners, indigenous/campesino groups, political leaders, and university students coordinated nonviolent methods such as hunger strikes, road blockades, mass protests, and marches. These nonviolent techniques and strategies were instrumental in fighting against military dictatorships and led the country back to the path of re-democratization.

One critical element for the success of civil resistance is the process of backfire, where the actions of the oppressors recoil against them, leading to negative consequences. This phenomenon is also referred to as "political jiu-jitsu" by Gene Sharp, a leading expert in nonviolent methods.

The implementation and outcomes of civil resistance in Bolivia during its military dictatorships can be divided into three dictatorship periods:

• The Barrientos dictatorship: This period saw the San Juan Massacre and the failure of armed insurgencies. Barrientos targeted union leaders, COB officials, and leftist politicians, driving them into exile. Civil resistance was met with brutal state repression, but it played a crucial role in challenging the regime.
• The Banzer dictatorship: Marked by the Tolata Massacre and a successful hunger strike. Banzer targeted political rivals, the press, and opposition groups. Civil resistance was met with road blockades and labor strikes, eventually leading to his resignation.
• The Garcia Meza dictatorship: Known as the "Cocaine Coup," this period saw the rise of a narco-dictatorship. Civil resistance was widespread, with labor, campesino unions, political parties, and students all participating. The military violence and connections to drug cartels led to international condemnation and the fall of the regime.

The constant nonviolent rejection of military regimes by the Bolivian people demonstrated the power of organized civil resistance. Violent state repression against nonviolent protesters backfired and created more public support and participation in civil resistance groups. Civil resistance campaigns politically empowered marginalized populations and created strong democratic alliances among all sectors, ultimately leading to the re-democratization of Bolivia.

Transitional justice

Bolivia has a history of dictatorship, with a series of military dictators ruling the country from 1964 to 1982. During this time, there were frequent coups and counter-coups, with power changing hands between various military leaders. The country transitioned to democracy in 1982, with the election of Guido Vildoso as president.

However, in recent years, there have been concerns about a return to dictatorship in Bolivia. In 2019, the country's first Indigenous president, Evo Morales, was ousted in a military coup. The self-declared "presidency" of Jeanine Áñez has been characterised as a right-wing, military dictatorship, with security forces carrying out massacres of Indigenous protesters and the suppression of media outlets that expressed dissenting opinions.

With regards to transitional justice in Bolivia, there have been efforts to address the crimes and human rights violations committed during the country's dictatorial past. In 2012, a group of activists who were survivors of the dictatorships that ruled Bolivia between 1964 and 1982 started a live-in protest to demand justice. As a result of their efforts, a truth commission was established in 2017 to investigate the violence and human rights abuses that occurred during the dictatorship. The commission had access to military archives and submitted a report to the government in March 2021, which has not yet been published.

In addition, in 2019, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) signed an agreement with the transitional government to create a mechanism to support the investigation of acts of violence and human rights abuses that took place between September and December 2019. As a result, an Interdisciplinary Group of Independent Experts (GIEI) was created to investigate these events. The GIEI has autonomy and independence to ensure the right to the truth and identify those responsible for human rights violations.

However, there are concerns about the lack of transitional justice in Bolivia. After Evo Morales and the Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) came to power in 2006, little changed in terms of addressing the crimes of the dictatorial past. The military archives remained closed, and the government offered only partial reparations to the estimated 6,000 victims. There are also concerns about the lack of independence of the judiciary, with reports of corruption and political influence.

International influence

Bolivia has traditionally maintained normal diplomatic relations with most countries in the Americas, except Chile. The country has a heavy economic focus in its foreign policy and is a member of several international organisations, including the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and the Non-Aligned Movement. Bolivia is also a signatory to the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and the Andean Community Decision 486.

Bolivia's international relations have been influenced by its desire for a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean, which it lost to Chile in 1884. This dispute has led to strained relations and broken diplomatic ties between the two countries on multiple occasions. Bolivia has also pursued diplomatic relations with countries outside the Americas, such as China, Russia, and several European nations.

Historically, the United States has had strong ties with Bolivia and has been a long-standing consumer of its exports. However, the election of Evo Morales strained relations between the two countries due to conflicting policies on coca eradication. Bolivia suspended the operations of the US Drug Enforcement Administration and expelled the US ambassador in 2008.

In recent years, Bolivia has experienced political instability, with protests and violence erupting in the country. The ousting of Evo Morales, the country's first Indigenous president, and the self-declared presidency of Jeanine Anez have raised concerns about a return to right-wing dictatorship. The killing of Indigenous protesters and the exemption of security forces from criminal responsibility have been criticised as racist, state-sanctioned violence.

The international community has had a mixed response to the situation in Bolivia. While some have described the events as a coup, others have viewed them as a spontaneous social uprising against an unconstitutional fourth term for Evo Morales. The interim government, led by Jeanine Anez, took out a loan from the International Monetary Fund to address the country's needs during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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