Tiwanaku, Bolivia: An Ancient City's Age And Legacy

Tiwanaku is an ancient city in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca, that was built almost 13,000 feet (4,000 metres) above sea level. It was the capital of the Tiwanaku empire, which dominated the altiplano plains and stretched from the Peruvian coast to northern Bolivia, including parts of northern Chile. The city reached its peak between AD 500 and AD 1000, with a population of at least 10,000 people. The site was first recorded in written history in 1549 by Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de León and has since been recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Tiwanaku's history as a Pre-Columbian site

Tiwanaku, a Pre-Columbian site in western Bolivia, was one of the most significant Andean civilisations. It was founded around 110 AD during the Late Formative Period, and its influence extended into present-day Peru and Chile. The city is located at an altitude of roughly 3,800 metres (12,500 feet) above sea level, making it the highest state capital of the ancient world.

Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the first millennium AD. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, this Andean city grew to significance. At its height, the city of Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometres (1.5 square miles) and had a population of greater than 10,000 individuals. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade.

The principal buildings of Tiwanaku include the Akapana Pyramid, a huge platform mound or stepped pyramid of earth faced with cut andesite; a rectangular enclosure known as the Kalasasaya, constructed of alternating tall stone columns and smaller rectangular blocks; and another enclosure known as the Palacio. The city also featured impressive gateways, such as the Gateway of the Sun, adorned with the carved central figure of a staff-carrying Doorway God.

Tiwanaku's influence, most clearly documented by the presence of its decorated ceramics, expanded into the Yungas and influenced many other cultures in Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina and Chile. The population grew rapidly between 600 and 800, and the site became an important regional power in the southern Andes.

Tiwanaku was a multi-cultural network that brought people together to build large monuments. These work feasts integrated people in powerful ceremonies, and this was probably the central dynamic that attracted people from hundreds of kilometres away. Tiwanaku grew into the Andes' most important pilgrimage destination and one of the continent's largest Pre-Columbian cities, reaching a maximum population of 10,000 to 20,000 around AD 800.

The site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 AD, however, the reasoning behind this is still open to debate. Recent studies have shown evidence of a greater amount of aridity in the region around the time of collapse, suggesting that a drought may have played a role in the fall of Tiwanaku.

The site's archaeological significance

The site of Tiwanaku, Bolivia, is one of the largest Pre-Columbian archaeological sites in South America. It is located in the Titicaca basin, near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca, and is considered one of the most significant Andean civilisations. The site is thought to have been founded around 110 AD, with the first examples of its monumental architecture dating to around 200 CE. From 375 CE, the city's architecture became more grandiose, with the construction of large religious buildings, gateways and sculptures.

Tiwanaku's influence extended into present-day Peru and Chile, and it is believed to have been inhabited by 10,000 to 20,000 people in AD 800. The growth of the city has been attributed to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade. The city's layout was constructed on an east-west axis, with a grid design, and was surrounded by a moat on three sides, linking to Lake Titicaca on the fourth side.

Tiwanaku is characterised by its impressive monumental stonework, which has been admired by the Incas and continues to impress modern-day visitors. The site features two types of walls: those made with large irregular blocks, and those made with fine-fitting and straight-edged blocks. Many of the blocks have grooves cut into them to allow for the placement of ropes, which made transportation and positioning easier. The precision of the stone cutting suggests the use of relatively sophisticated tools and instruments of measurement.

Tiwanaku became a centre of Pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites, with human sacrifices taking place on top of the Akapana structure. The site also holds religious significance for the Aymara people, who consider it the centre of the universe due to its geographical location.

The site has suffered extensive looting and amateur excavations since its fall, as well as damage during the Spanish conquest and colonial period. As a result, no standing buildings remain, and only public, non-domestic foundations can be found. Despite this, Tiwanaku has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site and continues to be the subject of archaeological research and restoration efforts.

The influence of Tiwanaku on the Inca

The Tiwanaku Polity, also known as Tiahuanaco or Tiahuanacu, was a Pre-Columbian civilisation in western Bolivia, lasting from around 600 to 1000 AD. It was one of the most significant Andean civilisations, with influence extending into present-day Peru, Chile, and even northern Argentina. The capital, also called Tiwanaku, was located near the southern shores of Lake Titicaca, and was likely home to 10,000 to 20,000 people around AD 800.

The Inca civilisation, which rose to power in the 15th century, was influenced by Tiwanaku in several ways. Firstly, Tiwanaku's large-scale agricultural production and sophisticated farming techniques, such as "flooded-raised field" agriculture, likely inspired similar practices in the Inca Empire. Tiwanaku's influence is also seen in the Inca's adoption of pilgrimage practices, with Lake Titicaca becoming a sacred site for rituals and religious ceremonies.

The Inca also drew inspiration from Tiwanaku's monumental architecture, which included large religious buildings, gateways, and sculptures. Tiwanaku's stonework and masonry techniques, characterised by large stones and rectangular ashlar blocks, were particularly admired by the Inca. The precision of Tiwanaku's stone cutting and the use of relatively sophisticated tools influenced the Inca's own construction projects. Additionally, the layout of the Tiwanaku capital, with its grid design and ceremonial open spaces, may have influenced the design of Inca settlements.

Furthermore, Tiwanaku's cultural and artistic legacy extended beyond its own time, influencing the Inca and other Andean cultures that followed. The Staff God, for example, was a common motif in Tiwanaku art and likely inspired the later worship of Viracocha, the Andean creator god, in Inca mythology. The Gateway of the Sun at Tiwanaku, featuring a deity with a staff, is believed to have inspired similar representations of Viracocha.

In conclusion, the influence of Tiwanaku on the Inca can be seen in various aspects, including agriculture, ritual practices, architecture, and artistic motifs. Tiwanaku's legacy extended beyond its own time, shaping the beliefs and practices of the Inca Empire and contributing to the rich cultural heritage of the Andes.

The city's population and growth

The city of Tiwanaku was founded around 110 AD and is located in western Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca. It is one of the largest archaeological sites in South America, covering an area of about 4 square kilometres.

Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the first millennium AD. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, this Andean city grew in significance. At its height, Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometres and had a population of greater than 10,000 individuals, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to 20,000. Some sources even place the peak population as high as 30,000 to 70,000 residents. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade.

The population of Tiwanaku grew rapidly between 600 and 800 AD, likely due to massive immigration from the surrounding countryside. This influx of people led to the construction and remodelling of large parts of the city, including new and larger carved monoliths, temples, and standardised polychrome pottery. The city's influence expanded during this period, particularly into present-day Peru and Chile.

The city's population fluctuated dramatically depending on the season, as people made long visits to participate in work parties and festivals. Outside of the core area, there were Tiwanaku colonies and diaspora communities, indicating a far-reaching and influential civilisation.

By 1000 AD, the site of Tiwanaku appears to have been abandoned, with the city's collapse potentially linked to a severe drought that affected local agricultural systems.

Tiwanaku's decline and abandonment

The decline and abandonment of Tiwanaku, a Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, is a subject of ongoing debate among scholars. While the site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 CE, the precise reasons behind this remain a mystery. Several factors have been proposed to explain Tiwanaku's decline, including environmental changes, social unrest, internal conflict, and invasion by outside forces.

One of the most commonly cited factors is environmental change, particularly prolonged drought. Geologist Elliott Arnold's research provides evidence of increased aridity in the region during the time of Tiwanaku's collapse. A drought would have disrupted the local agricultural systems, affecting food production and potentially leading to social unrest. The timing of Tiwanaku's collapse coincides with the fall of the Wari culture in Peru, suggesting that environmental changes in the Andes may have contributed to the downfall of both civilizations.

In addition to environmental factors, social and political dynamics may have played a role in Tiwanaku's decline. The society of Tiwanaku was highly stratified, with a complex political and religious hierarchy. Internal conflicts or changes in power dynamics could have contributed to the city's abandonment. Additionally, there is evidence of intentional destruction at the site, with monolithic gates like the Gateway of the Sun being tipped over and broken. This suggests that social unrest or internal conflicts may have played a role in the city's demise.

Another factor to consider is the possibility of invasion or conflict with outside forces. Tiwanaku faced attacks from the Aymara Kingdoms, a collective group of states, which may have contributed to its decline. However, there is limited evidence of defensive architecture or changes in weapon technology at Tiwanaku, challenging the notion of military conflict as the primary cause of its abandonment.

The decline and abandonment of Tiwanaku were likely due to a complex interplay of various factors, including environmental changes, social dynamics, and external pressures. The precise sequence of events leading to its collapse remains a mystery, and further research and archaeological discoveries may shed more light on this enigmatic chapter in the history of this ancient civilization.

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