Can Bolivia Secure A Sea Access Again?

Bolivia has been a landlocked country since the end of the 19th century, when it lost access to the sea after being defeated by Chile in the War of the Pacific. The conflict, which lasted from 1879 to 1884, resulted in Chile annexing 120,000 sq km of Bolivian land, including a 400km coastline. Bolivia has persistently pursued the restoration of its maritime access, leading to ongoing diplomatic tensions with Chile. In 2013, Bolivia took its case to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), seeking to compel Chile to negotiate in good faith. However, in 2018, the ICJ ruled that Chile was not obligated to negotiate with Bolivia on granting access to the sea. Despite this setback, Bolivia continues to pursue its aspiration for sovereign access to the ocean and has not given up on its fight to regain its historic coastline.

The War of the Pacific

The war was fought over control of a part of the Atacama Desert, which lies between the 23rd and 26th parallels on the Pacific coast of South America. This territory contained valuable mineral resources, particularly sodium nitrate, which was used as fertiliser and in the manufacture of explosives. The region was also important for control of Pacific trade routes.

The direct cause of the war was a dispute over nitrate taxation between Bolivia and Chile. In 1873, Bolivia and Peru had signed a secret treaty of alliance against Chile. In 1874, a Boundary Treaty was signed between Chile and Bolivia, which established the border between the two countries and prohibited tax increases for mining. However, in 1878, Bolivia increased taxes on the Chilean mining company Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta (CSFA), violating the Boundary Treaty. Chile protested this violation and requested international arbitration, but Bolivia considered it an internal issue. On February 14, 1879, Chile's armed forces occupied the Bolivian port city of Antofagasta, and war was declared between the two countries on March 1.

Peru was drawn into the conflict due to its secret alliance with Bolivia. On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on both Peru and Bolivia. The war played out in naval campaigns and land battles in the Atacama Desert, Peruvian deserts, and the mountainous interior of Peru. Chile's land campaign eventually overcame the Bolivian and Peruvian armies, and Bolivia withdrew after the Battle of Tacna in May 1880. Chilean forces occupied Peru's capital, Lima, in January 1881, and the remaining Peruvian army waged a guerrilla war.

Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón in October 1883, ending the war. Bolivia signed a truce with Chile in 1884. As a result of the war, Chile gained significant resource-rich territory from both Peru and Bolivia, including Bolivia's entire coastline. Bolivia became a landlocked country and has since sought to regain access to the sea.

The Atacama Desert

The desert covers an area of 105,000 square kilometres (41,000 square miles), increasing to 128,000 square kilometres (49,000 square miles) if the lower slopes of the Andes are included. It stretches over a 1,600-kilometre-long (1,000-mile) strip of land west of the Andes Mountains. The Atacama is bordered by Peru to the north, the Chilean Matorral ecoregion to the south, and the Central Andean dry Puna ecoregion to the east.

The Atacama's extreme aridity is caused by a constant temperature inversion, which is the result of the cool north-flowing Humboldt ocean current and the strong Pacific anticyclone. The desert is situated between two mountain ranges—the Andes and the Chilean Coast Range—that are high enough to prevent moisture advection from either the Pacific or the Atlantic Ocean, creating a two-sided rain shadow effect. The Atacama's average rainfall is about 15 millimetres (0.6 inches) per year, though some locations only receive 1 to 3 millimetres (0.04 to 0.12 inches) annually. Some weather stations in the Atacama have never recorded any rainfall.

Despite its aridity, the Atacama is home to a rich variety of flora and fauna. Over 500 plant species have been found within the desert's borders, characterised by their ability to adapt to the extreme environment. Common species include herbs and flowers such as thyme, llareta, and saltgrass. Trees such as the chañar, the pimiento tree, and the leafy algarrobo can be found in areas with sufficient humidity. The Atacama is also home to cacti, succulents, and other plants that thrive in dry climates.

The Atacama's animal life is limited by the desert's climate, with some areas being too arid to support any life. Outside of these extreme zones, insects such as sand-coloured grasshoppers, beetles, and butterflies can be found. Red scorpions also inhabit the desert. Some lomas (hills) in the Atacama receive ocean fog, providing enough moisture for seasonal plants and a few animal species. The Atacama is home to surprisingly few reptile and amphibian species. The Atacama toad, for example, lives on the lomas, where it lays its eggs in permanent ponds or streams. Birds are one of the most diverse animal groups in the Atacama, with Humboldt penguins living year-round along the coast, and Andean and Chilean flamingos inhabiting salt flats. Only a few mammal species specially adapted to arid environments live in the Atacama, such as Darwin's leaf-eared mouse.

The International Court of Justice

In response, Chile raised preliminary objections, citing the 1904 Treaty of Peace and Friendship that settled all issues regarding the border. Chile argued that while Bolivia had a right to non-sovereign access, it had no right to sovereign access. The ICJ ruled in 2015 that it had jurisdiction to hear the case, rejecting Chile's preliminary objection.

On October 1, 2018, the ICJ ruled against forcing Chile to negotiate, finding that Chile did not have an obligation to provide Bolivia with access to the sea. The court did not rule on the rightful control of the disputed territory. While the ICJ encouraged both parties to continue dialogue, the Bolivian President, Evo Morales, faced criticism for creating false expectations, and he vowed that Bolivia would never give up its pursuit of access to the sea.

Bolivia's Navy

The Bolivian Navy has approximately 5,000 personnel and consists of several dozen vessels, including speedboats, tankers, and boats acquired from the United States and China. The Navy's troops navigate Bolivia's Amazonian rivers and Lake Titicaca, which is shared with Peru. They engage in patrols to prevent smuggling and drug trafficking, deliver medical supplies to remote communities, and respond to disasters. Additionally, the Navy has participated in United Nations peacekeeping operations in Haiti.

The Navy is organised into ten naval districts, with flotilla headquarters in Guaqui, Guayaramerín, Puerto Suárez, Riberalta, and San Pedro de Tiquina. It also maintains bases in Puerto Busch, Puerto Horquilla, Puerto Villarroel, Trinidad, and Rurrenabaque. The Navy's vessels include riverine patrol boats, seagoing vessels sailing with Bolivian flags, and a training ship named Libertador Simón Bolívar.

Despite being landlocked, Bolivia's Navy plays a crucial role in the country's defence and internal security. It embodies the nation's refusal to give up on regaining access to the sea, which remains a significant aspect of Bolivia's national psyche and political agenda.

The Day of the Sea

On 23 March every year, Bolivia celebrates 'Dia del Mar' or 'Day of the Sea', a patriotic event commemorating the loss of its coastline during the 1879–1883/1884 War of the Pacific with Chile. The date marks the anniversary of the Battle of Topáter, the first battle of the war, which took place on 23 March 1879.

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