The Enduring Conflict: Afghanistan And Pakistan's Long Battle For Herat

Afghanistan has a long history of domination by foreign conquerors and internal strife. The land has been conquered by many foreign powers, including the Babylonians, Macedonians, and the British. More recently, the country has been invaded by the Soviets and Americans. The country has also been the site of numerous civil wars and has been used as a base for terrorist organisations such as Al-Qaeda. Pakistan has played a significant role in the Afghanistan War, serving as a safe haven for the Taliban and a logistical supply line.

The Taliban's resurgence and Pakistan's role

Pakistan has played a significant role in the resurgence of the Taliban in Afghanistan. The country has provided the Taliban with a safe haven, financial support, and military assistance.

Pakistan has a history of involvement in Afghanistan, dating back to the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s. During this conflict, the CIA, with support from Pakistan, engineered the largest covert operation in its history to defeat the Soviet army in Afghanistan. Pakistan served as a base for the mujahideen, the Islamic guerrilla fighters who resisted the Soviet occupation.

Following the Soviet withdrawal, Pakistan continued to play a pivotal role in Afghan affairs. In the 1990s, the Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate (ISI), Pakistan's intelligence service, provided support to Mullah Omar, the founder of the Taliban. The ISI trained Omar and other Taliban fighters at its camps. Pakistan was one of only three countries that recognised the Taliban's Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as the legitimate government of Afghanistan in the late 1990s.

After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the United States, with UN backing, intervened in Afghanistan and toppled the Taliban regime. However, Pakistan remained a safe haven for the Taliban leadership and fighters, who fled across the border. The Taliban regrouped and, with critical help from Pakistan, resumed their insurgency.

Pakistan provided the Taliban with sanctuary, training camps, expertise, and assistance with fundraising. Pakistani officers have even been killed on the battlefield in Afghanistan while operating under cover with Taliban forces. The Taliban's resurgence was also facilitated by the acquisition of advanced weaponry, which they obtained from abandoned military bases in Afghanistan following the US withdrawal.

The relationship between Pakistan and the Taliban is complex. While Pakistan has exerted influence over the Taliban, it does not have complete control. The Taliban, for instance, has provided some assistance to the Pakistani Taliban, also known as Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), which has carried out attacks against the Pakistani state.

The Taliban's resurgence has had significant consequences for Afghanistan. The group imposed a harsh interpretation of Islamic law, restricting the rights of women and minority groups. The country has also faced economic turmoil, with a shrinking economy, widespread malnutrition, and high unemployment. Additionally, the Taliban's close ties with al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups have raised concerns about Afghanistan becoming a safe haven for terrorists.

US-led invasion of Afghanistan and its impact on the region

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan was triggered by the September 11 attacks and consisted of three phases. The first phase was to topple the Taliban regime, which had provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda, the perpetrators of the attacks. The US was joined by the UK, Canada, Australia, and other countries in the invasion, which began on October 7, 2001, with air strikes on Taliban targets. The Taliban regime unravelled rapidly, and by mid-November, anti-Taliban figures convened at a UN-sponsored conference in Bonn, Germany, where Hamid Karzai was selected to lead the country on an interim basis. The Taliban leadership retreated into rural Afghanistan and across the border to Pakistan.

The second phase of the invasion, from 2002 until 2008, was marked by a US strategy of defeating the Taliban militarily and rebuilding core institutions of the Afghan state. The US committed to the reconstruction of Afghanistan, but development efforts were inadequately funded as attention shifted to Iraq. The US also argued against allowing other foreign forces to deploy beyond Kabul. This decision was later seen as a major error, as it gave power to potential spoilers whose activities harmed the state's reputation.

The third phase, a turn to classic counterinsurgency doctrine, began in 2008 and was accelerated by President Barack Obama's decision to temporarily increase US troop presence in Afghanistan. The larger force was used to implement a strategy of protecting the population from Taliban attacks and supporting efforts to reintegrate insurgents into Afghan society. This strategy was coupled with a timetable for the withdrawal of foreign forces, with security responsibilities gradually being handed over to the Afghan military and police. However, the new approach largely failed to achieve its aims, with insurgent attacks and civilian casualties remaining high.

The US-led invasion of Afghanistan had a significant impact on the region. It led to the fall of the Taliban regime and the establishment of a new government led by Hamid Karzai. However, the invasion also resulted in a prolonged conflict and instability in the country, with the Taliban waging an insurgency against the US-led coalition and the Afghan government. The invasion also had humanitarian consequences, with millions of Afghans fleeing the country and facing food shortages and other challenges. Additionally, the invasion contributed to tensions between the US and Pakistan, as Pakistan was accused of providing safe havens for the Taliban and other militant groups. The invasion also had economic implications, with the US and its allies incurring significant costs for military operations and reconstruction efforts.

Pakistan's support of the Taliban as a hedge against NATO

Pakistan has a long history of involvement in Afghanistan's affairs, dating back to the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s. During that conflict, Pakistan served as a safe haven for the mujahideen, the Islamist guerrilla groups fighting against the Soviet army. The country also received significant financial and military aid from the United States, which was channelled through the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) to support the mujahideen. This established a precedent for Pakistan's role in Afghanistan's affairs and its relationship with the Taliban.

Following the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, Pakistan continued to pursue its strategic interests in the country. It sought to gain "strategic depth" by establishing a secure border and strengthening its position against its rival, India. Pakistan feared that Afghanistan's Pashtun population, which straddles the Pakistani-Afghan border, could fuel separatist sentiments within Pakistan. By supporting the Taliban, a predominantly Pashtun group, Pakistan aimed to foster Islamic nationalism and counter Pashtun nationalism. Additionally, Pakistan saw the Taliban as a potential ally in its rivalry with India, as a Taliban-led Afghanistan could provide a haven for anti-India militant groups.

The 9/11 terrorist attacks and the subsequent US-led invasion of Afghanistan marked a shift in Pakistan's relationship with the Taliban. Officially, Pakistan aligned with the US-led coalition and supported efforts to topple the Taliban regime. However, there were conflicting interests within Pakistan's government and military, with some elements continuing to support the Taliban covertly. This support included providing safe havens, training, weapons, and financial assistance. Pakistan's intelligence agency, the ISI, played a significant role in facilitating this support.

Despite pressure from the US and its allies, Pakistan's support for the Taliban persisted due to several factors. Firstly, Pakistan viewed a Taliban-led Afghanistan as a hedge against Indian influence in the region. Secondly, Pakistan sought to maintain ties with the Taliban to counter the threat of anti-Pakistan militant groups finding safe havens in Afghanistan. Finally, Pakistan's military and intelligence establishments had their own interests in maintaining ties with the Taliban, which they saw as a potential ally in the region.

Over time, Pakistan's relationship with the Taliban evolved, and there were periods when Pakistan took action against the group. For instance, in the winter of 2011, Pakistani police arrested several senior Taliban leaders. However, this campaign was not sustained, and Pakistan's overall support for the Taliban remained intact. Pakistan's leverage in Afghanistan increased as the US and its NATO allies became mired in a protracted conflict, and Pakistan was seen as a crucial ally due to its role in the region.

In conclusion, Pakistan's support for the Taliban as a hedge against NATO and other external influences in Afghanistan was driven by a combination of ideological, strategic, and security concerns. Pakistan sought to promote Islamic nationalism over Pashtun nationalism, counter India's influence, and ensure a friendly government in Afghanistan. However, this support was not without risks, and Pakistan had to navigate complex dynamics within the region, including the presence of other militant groups and the potential for civil war in Afghanistan.

The history of Afghanistan-Pakistan relations and their impact on the conflict

Afghanistan and Pakistan have had a strained relationship since the partition of British India in 1947, which led to the emergence of Pakistan along Afghanistan's eastern frontier. Afghanistan was the only country to vote against Pakistan's admission into the United Nations. The Durand Line, established in 1893, has been a significant source of tension between the two countries, with Afghanistan refusing to recognise it as the international border. Afghanistan has made irredentist claims to large swathes of Pakistani territory, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistani Balochistan, which are considered the traditional homeland of "Pashtunistan" for the Pashtun people. This has resulted in territorial disputes and conflicting claims that have prevented the normalisation of bilateral ties.

Afghanistan has also accused Pakistan of supporting the Taliban, which has received substantial financial and logistical backing from Pakistan. The Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency has been accused of providing the Taliban with funding, training, and weaponry. Pakistan's support for the Taliban, however, is not without risks, as it involves a delicate balancing act. Pakistan's passive support for the Taliban serves as a hedge against the potential withdrawal of NATO forces and gives Pakistan leverage in the post-NATO Afghanistan.

The relationship between Afghanistan and Pakistan has been further complicated by the presence of Afghan refugees in Pakistan, water-sharing rights, and the growing relationship between Afghanistan and India. Additionally, there have been border tensions and skirmishes between the two countries, particularly along the Durand Line, which has witnessed frequent occurrences of suicide bombings, airstrikes, and street battles.

Despite the strained relationship, Afghanistan and Pakistan have also had periods of cooperation and attempts at improving bilateral ties. Afghanistan has sought to improve relations with Pakistan to bring peace and stability to the region. Pakistan, on the other hand, has pursued a policy of strategic depth in Afghanistan, seeking a friendly government in Kabul that would provide it with strategic advantages in the event of a conflict with India. Pakistan has also been a major conduit for transit trade involving landlocked Afghanistan.

The complex dynamics between Afghanistan and Pakistan have had a significant impact on the conflict in Afghanistan. Pakistan's support for the Taliban and other militant groups has contributed to the instability and violence in the country. The border between the two countries has served as a safe haven and logistical supply line for the Taliban and other insurgent groups. Additionally, the refusal of Afghanistan to recognise the Durand Line as the international border has fuelled tensions and disputes.

The relationship between Afghanistan and Pakistan has been characterised by mutual suspicion, competing interests, and geopolitical calculations. Pakistan's support for the Taliban and its pursuit of strategic depth have often been at odds with Afghanistan's desire for sovereignty and stability. The conflict in Afghanistan has, in turn, influenced Pakistan's internal security situation, with the rise of the Pakistani Taliban and other extremist groups. The complex interplay between the two countries has had a profound impact on the region's security and stability.

The role of other countries, like the US and NATO, in the Afghanistan-Pakistan conflict

The US and NATO have played a significant role in the Afghanistan-Pakistan conflict. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the US, NATO forces entered Afghanistan under a United Nations Security Council mandate. The goal was to prevent Afghanistan from becoming a safe haven for international terrorists and ensure it couldn't be used for acts of war against other states. From 2003 to 2014, NATO led the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which aimed to strengthen the Afghan government and security forces. After ISAF, NATO launched the Resolute Support Mission (RSM) in 2015 to train and assist Afghan security forces in fighting terrorism. This mission ended in 2021 with the withdrawal of all RSM forces.

The US-led war in Afghanistan has similarities to the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s, when the CIA, with a safe haven in Pakistan, engineered the largest covert operation in its history to defeat the Soviets. Today, the US and NATO are fighting a Taliban-led insurgency based in Pakistan. Pakistan's role is critical, as it serves as a safe haven and logistical supply line for the Taliban, while also being a key logistical line for NATO forces, with over 80% of coalition supplies coming through Pakistan.

Pakistan's support for the Taliban is a delicate issue, as it involves territorial disputes and conflicting claims with Afghanistan. Pakistan has been accused of funding and arming the Taliban, while Afghanistan has been accused of harbouring terrorists that attack Pakistani territory. Despite this complex dynamic, Pakistan and Afghanistan have a close relationship, with strong economic ties and shared ethnolinguistic connections.

In recent years, there have been efforts to improve cooperation between the two countries, and Pakistan has taken action against Afghan-based terrorists. However, tensions persist, and the role of external powers like the US and NATO remains crucial in shaping the conflict dynamics and the broader region's stability.

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