The Governance Of Afghanistan: A Complex Blend Of Tradition And Modernity

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, with a long history of foreign conquest and internal conflict. The country has been invaded by many empires throughout history, including the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and a US-led coalition.

Afghanistan's modern history has been characterised by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The country has been ruled by various empires and political groups, including the Sadozai monarchy, the Durrani Afghan Empire, the Emirate of Afghanistan, the Kingdom of Afghanistan, the Republic of Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

The country's current political situation is complex and fluid, with the Taliban regaining control of the country in 2021 and establishing an internationally unrecognized Islamic Emirate. Afghanistan's future remains uncertain, with ongoing efforts to establish a stable and democratic government.

The country's official name is the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

Afghanistan has a long history of domination by foreign conquerors and strife among internally warring factions. The land has been conquered by the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and a US-led coalition. Afghanistan has also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, amongst others, rose to form major empires. The various conquests and periods in both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres made the area a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam.

The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani Afghan Empire in the 18th century, although Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Dost Mohammad died in 1863, days after his last campaign to unite Afghanistan, and Afghanistan was consequently thrown back into civil war. During this time, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Empire and the Russian Empire. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War. However, the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory and the successful establishment of British political influence. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in June 1926 under Amanullah Khan. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan was established.

Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The conflict began in 1978 when a communist revolution established a socialist state, and subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979. Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and continued fighting amongst themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The Islamic fundamentalist Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul and overthrowing the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, thus bringing an end to the 2001–2021 war. Although initially claiming it would form an inclusive government for the country, in September 2021 the Taliban re-established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan with an interim government made up entirely of Taliban members. The Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized.

Afghanistan is a landlocked country in Central Asia

Afghanistan has a rich history, dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era. It has been invaded and conquered by various empires, including the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, and the Soviet Union. The country has also been a source of major empires, such as the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals.

The modern state of Afghanistan was established in the 18th century by the Durrani Afghan Empire, with Ahmad Shah Durrani considered the "Father of the Nation." However, Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes regarded as the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Afghanistan gained independence from British rule in 1919 and became the Kingdom of Afghanistan under Amanullah Khan.

Afghanistan has a diverse ethnic and linguistic population, with Pashtuns being the largest ethnic group, followed by Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks. The official languages are Dari (Afghan Persian) and Pashto. The country is predominantly Muslim, with Sunni being the largest denomination.

Afghanistan has a long history of warfare, coups, invasions, and civil wars. In recent decades, the country has struggled with high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition, ranking among the least developed countries in the world. Despite these challenges, Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, and copper.

The country is predominantly mountainous, with plains in the north and southwest

Afghanistan is predominantly a mountainous country, with plains in the north and southwest. The Hindu Kush mountain range divides the country into these distinct geographic regions.

The northern plains region, north of the central highlands, extends from the Iranian border to the foothills of the Pamirs, near the border with Tajikistan. The region is made up of plains and fertile foothills, sloping gently towards the Amu Darya river. The average elevation is about 2,000 feet (600 metres). The northern plains region is densely populated and is used for intensive agriculture. The region also has rich mineral resources, particularly deposits of natural gas.

The southwestern plateau, south of the central highlands, is a region of high plateaus, sandy deserts, and semi-deserts. The average elevation is about 3,000 feet (900 metres). The southwestern plateau covers about 50,000 square miles (130,000 square kilometres), a quarter of which is made up of the sandy Rīgestān region. The smaller Mārgow desert of salt flats and steppe lies west of Rīgestān. Several large rivers cross the southwestern plateau, including the Helmand river and its major tributary, the Arghandāb.

The central highlands, part of the Himalayan chain, include the main Hindu Kush range. The region has an area of about 160,000 square miles (414,000 square kilometres) and is characterised by deep, narrow valleys and lofty mountains, with some peaks rising above 21,000 feet (6,400 metres). The Khyber Pass, located in the mountain ranges of the central highlands, is one of the most famous routes to the Indian subcontinent. The climate in this region is usually dry, with cold winters and summer temperatures averaging around 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

Kabul is the country's capital and largest city

Kabul is the capital city of Afghanistan and is located in the eastern half of the country. It is also a municipality, forming part of the Kabul Province. It is divided into 22 municipal districts and has a population of 4.95 million people. The city has served as Afghanistan's political, cultural, and economic centre, and rapid urbanisation has made Kabul the 75th-largest city in the world and the country's primate city.

Kabul is one of the world's highest capital cities, situated at an elevation of 1,790 metres (5,873 ft). It is strategically situated in a valley surrounded by high mountains at crossroads of north-south and east-west trade routes. It was once the centre of Zoroastrianism and subsequently also a home for Buddhists and Hindus.

Kabul is known for its historical gardens, bazaars, and palaces; well-known examples are the Gardens of Babur and Darul Aman Palace, as well as the Arg. In the second half of the 20th century, it became a stop on the hippie trail undertaken by many Europeans, and the city also gained the nickname "Paris of Central Asia" during this time.

Kabul has been under the rule of various other dynasties and empires, including the Seleucids, the Mauryans, the Kushans, the Hindu Shahis, Western Turks, the Turk Shahis, the Samanids, the Khwarazmians, the Timurids, and the Mongols, among others such as the Arman Rayamajhis. In the 16th century, the Mughal Empire used Kabul as a summer capital, during which time it prospered and increased in significance. It briefly came under the control of the Afsharids following Nader Shah's invasion of India, until finally coming under local rule by the Afghan Empire in 1747; Kabul became the capital of Afghanistan in 1776, during the reign of Timur Shah Durrani (a son of Ahmad Shah Durrani).

In the 19th century, the city was occupied by the British, but after establishing foreign relations and agreements, they were compelled to withdraw all forces from Afghanistan and return to British India.

Afghanistan has a rich history, with human habitation dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era

Afghanistan has a rich and complex history, with human habitation dating back to the Middle Paleolithic era. Its strategic location along the historic Silk Road has connected it to various cultures and empires over the centuries, earning it the nickname the "roundabout of the ancient world". The region has been a melting pot of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences and has witnessed numerous military campaigns and conquests.

The earliest known settlements in Afghanistan emerged during the Regionalization Era (4600-2800 BCE), with the development of pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic sites like Kara-Depe, Namazga-Depe, and Altyn-Depe. During this period, advancements in metallurgy and agriculture were introduced by migrants from central Iran, leading to population growth and the expansion of settlements. By the Late Regionalization Era, Altyn Depe had evolved into a proto-urban society, marking the late Chalcolithic characteristics of the Namazga III phase (c. 3200-2800 BCE).

During the ancient and medieval periods, Afghanistan was influenced by various empires and dynasties. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, held sway over parts of present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northwestern India, with their residence in Taxila (modern-day Punjab, Pakistan). The Sasanian Empire, founded by Shapur I, also extended its influence into Afghanistan, marking the region with their cultural and monetary designs.

From the 16th to the 17th centuries CE, Afghanistan was divided into three major areas: the north was ruled by the Khanate of Bukhara, the west by the Iranian Shia Safavids, and the east by the Sunni Mughals of northern India. The Mughal Empire, established by Babur, had its capital in Old Delhi and exerted influence over Kabul and surrounding regions.

The Durrani Empire, founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in the 18th century, is considered the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan. However, the country once again became fragmented after Ahmad Shah Durrani's death, dividing into multiple smaller independent kingdoms. Dost Mohammad Khan, the ruler of the Emirate of Kabul, is sometimes regarded as the founder of the first modern Afghan state, leading numerous campaigns to unite the region.

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