The Ever-Changing Landscape Of Afghanistan: A Nation Transformed By War And Resilience

Afghanistan has a long history of being dominated by foreign conquerors and internal warring factions. The country has been through decades of war, foreign intervention, and political upheaval.

The War in Afghanistan (2001-2021) was an armed conflict that began when an international military coalition led by the United States invaded Afghanistan, declaring Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the war on terror. The invasion was a direct response to the September 11 attacks, which were plotted by Al-Qaeda, a terrorist organisation led by Osama Bin Laden, who was harboured by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.

The US-led forces successfully toppled the Taliban-ruled Islamic Emirate and established the Islamic Republic. However, the Taliban regrouped and began a widespread insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces. The conflict resulted in heavy casualties and millions of refugees. Despite international efforts to stabilise the country, the war continued for two decades, becoming the longest war in US military history.

In 2021, the US-led coalition formally ended its combat mission and began withdrawing troops from Afghanistan. The Taliban took advantage of the power vacuum and rapidly seized territory, eventually capturing Kabul and re-establishing the Islamic Emirate. The fall of Kabul and the collapse of the Afghan government took the US and its allies by surprise.

The war has had a devastating impact on Afghanistan, causing immense loss of life, destruction, and displacement. The country is now facing a severe humanitarian crisis, with millions at risk of famine and a rollback of human rights, particularly for women and girls.

The Taliban's resurgence and control of Afghanistan

Taliban's Tactical Advantages and Support from Regional Countries:

• The Taliban took advantage of Afghanistan's mountainous terrain, which has historically hindered foreign and domestic armies while providing cover for guerrilla fighters.
• Regional countries, particularly Pakistan, Iran, China, and Russia, were often accused of funding and supporting the Taliban and other insurgent groups.
• Pakistan's intelligence agency, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), played a significant role in bolstering the Taliban's operational capabilities, and the group's leaders found safe havens in Pakistan.
• The Haqqani Network, a Taliban affiliate based in Pakistan, received strong support from ISI.
• The Taliban also received financial aid from the private sector in Pakistan, contributing to their financial sustainability.

US and NATO Withdrawal:

• The withdrawal of US and NATO troops from Afghanistan as part of the 2020 peace agreement with the Taliban created a power vacuum that the Taliban was quick to fill.
• The United States completed its troop withdrawal in August 2021, allowing the Taliban to intensify their insurgency and capture several districts.
• By mid-2021, the Taliban had captured key cities, including Kandahar, and seized border crossings, leading to the collapse of the Afghan government.

Taliban's Rule and Impact:

• The Taliban imposed a harsh interpretation of Islamic law, cracking down on women's rights, freedom of the press, and other civil liberties.
• Afghanistan's economy floundered under Taliban rule, with malnutrition soaring and hundreds of thousands of jobs lost. Most women were banned from working.
• The Taliban's return to power threatened the gains made in Afghans' standards of living over the previous two decades, with poverty, food insecurity, and economic decline affecting a large portion of the population.
• There are concerns that the Taliban could provide safe havens for terrorist groups like al-Qaeda, allowing them to launch international attacks.

The role of the US and its allies

The US-Led Invasion and the Initial Phase

The US played a pivotal role in the war in Afghanistan, which began in 2001 as a direct response to the September 11 attacks orchestrated by al-Qaeda. An international military coalition led by the US invaded Afghanistan, declaring Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the broader "war on terror." The initial goal was to topple the Taliban regime, which had provided sanctuary to al-Qaeda and refused to hand over Osama bin Laden. British forces joined US troops in this endeavour.

Overthrow of the Taliban and the Hunt for Bin Laden

US and British forces, in collaboration with anti-Taliban groups like the Northern Alliance, swiftly ousted the Taliban from major population centres. The Northern Alliance, with US and UK support, captured several key cities, including Mazar-e-Sharif, Kabul, and Kandahar. The Taliban leadership retreated into rural areas and across the border into Pakistan.

The manhunt for Osama bin Laden, Mullah Mohammed Omar, and other al-Qaeda leaders was a critical aspect of this phase. The Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001 was a significant operation in this regard, though bin Laden managed to escape into Pakistan.

Reconstruction and Nation-Building Efforts

With the Taliban removed from power, the focus shifted to reconstruction and nation-building. A new Afghan Interim Administration was established, led by Hamid Karzai. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), sanctioned by the United Nations, was formed to maintain security in Kabul and support the transitional government. The US Congress appropriated billions of dollars in humanitarian and reconstruction assistance.

However, nation-building efforts faced challenges due to inadequate funding, a lack of coordination, and the shifting focus towards Iraq following the US invasion in 2003.

The Taliban Insurgency and NATO's Role

The Taliban regrouped and launched an insurgency against the new Afghan government and coalition forces. Insurgents waged asymmetric warfare, utilising guerrilla tactics, suicide attacks, and targeted assassinations. By 2007, the Taliban had retaken large parts of Afghanistan.

NATO assumed control of international security forces (ISAF) in Afghanistan, marking its first operational commitment outside of Europe. The number of ISAF troops increased, with contributions from dozens of countries. NATO forces expanded their operations across the country and became more involved in intensive combat operations, particularly in southern Afghanistan.

The US Troop Surge and Counterinsurgency Strategy

Recognising the escalating insurgency, President Barack Obama announced a surge of US troops to Afghanistan in 2009. This marked a shift towards a counterinsurgency strategy, aiming to protect the Afghan population and support efforts to reintegrate insurgents. The strategy also included training and equipping Afghan security forces.

Withdrawal and the Taliban's Return to Power

Despite the efforts of US and NATO forces, the Taliban remained resilient. In 2020, the US and the Taliban signed a peace deal, agreeing to a timeline for the withdrawal of US troops. However, the Taliban continued attacks and made significant territorial gains.

In 2021, the Taliban launched a major offensive, culminating in the fall of Kabul and the collapse of the Afghan government. By August 2021, nearly all NATO countries had fully withdrawn their troops. The war in Afghanistan officially ended, marking the longest war in US military history.

The impact on Afghan civilians

The impact of the war on Afghan civilians has been devastating. The war killed an estimated 46,319 Afghan civilians, with the death toll possibly higher due to unaccounted deaths caused by disease, loss of access to food, water, infrastructure, and other indirect consequences of the war. A report by Physicians for Social Responsibility, Physicians for Global Survival, and the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.

The majority of civilian casualties were attributed to anti-government elements, including the Taliban, each year, though the figure varied from 61% to 80%, with the average hovering around 75%. The Taliban committed war crimes during the war, including massacres, suicide bombings, the use of anti-personnel IEDs, terrorism, and targeting civilians. In 2011, The New York Times reported that the Taliban was responsible for 3/4 of all civilian deaths in the war in Afghanistan.

Civilian deaths caused by non-Afghan Coalition forces were low later in the war after most foreign troops were withdrawn and the coalition shifted to airstrikes. However, civilian casualties remained high throughout the war, with 2015 and 2016 consecutively breaking the record for annual civilian deaths. The use of weapons that cause superfluous injury and unnecessary suffering is considered a war crime.

Millions of Afghans have been internally displaced or become refugees as a result of decades of conflict in Afghanistan. From 2002 to 2012, more than 5.7 million former refugees returned to Afghanistan, increasing the country's population by 25%. 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees in 2021 when the Taliban took over, while another 4 million were internally displaced. Following the Taliban takeover, over 122,000 people were airlifted abroad from Kabul airport, including Afghans, American citizens, and other foreign citizens.

The rise of ISIS-K

The Islamic State's affiliate in Afghanistan, ISIS-Khorasan or ISIS-K, emerged in 2015 in Pakistan. It is an offshoot of ISIS, which spread into northern Iraq from Syria. ISIS-K's members have come from other Pakistani militant groups, including disaffected and disillusioned Taliban fighters who view the Taliban as impure and not extremist enough. ISIS-K subscribes to the Jihadi-Salafism ideology and plays up the 'purity' of its anti-idolatry credentials.

ISIS-K's goals have evolved over the years. Initially, the group intended to topple the Pakistani government, punish the Iranian government, and 'purify' Afghanistan. However, since 2017, its anti-Pakistan and anti-Iran priorities have been replaced by a broad-reaching anti-Taliban and anti-Afghan religious minorities agenda. ISIS-K's ultimate strategic goal is to establish a "pure" Islamic system or caliphate in Afghanistan.

ISIS-K has a history of carrying out brutal attacks, targeting civilian centres, including hospitals, universities, and even a maternity ward. In 2020, they targeted a girls' school in Kabul, killing 85 and wounding 275 students. In 2021, ISIS-K conducted 77 attacks in Afghanistan during the first four months, a significant increase from the same period in the previous year.

The group has also targeted the United States and its allies. In August 2021, ISIS-K claimed responsibility for the bombing outside the Kabul airport, killing over 170 civilians and 13 US soldiers. This attack highlighted the group's resurgence and ability to carry out mass-casualty attacks, posing a threat to Afghanistan's security and stability.

ISIS-K has taken advantage of the instability in Afghanistan caused by the resurgence of the Taliban and the US withdrawal. It has gained strength and become one of the most visible brands for would-be terrorist sympathizers, attracting foreign fighters to its cause. The group's ability to carry out attacks and its growing influence have raised concerns about Afghanistan once again becoming a safe haven for terrorists to plan and execute transnational terrorist attacks.

The humanitarian crisis

Afghanistan is facing one of the worst humanitarian crises in the world, with millions of Afghans requiring humanitarian assistance. The crisis is a result of decades of conflict, economic collapse, poverty, natural disasters, drought, and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Impact on Women and Girls

The rights of women and girls in Afghanistan are under severe threat since the Taliban takeover. Women and girls face gender-based discrimination and violence. They have been banned from secondary and higher education and forced out of jobs. Women are not allowed to participate in political or public life and cannot move around without a male chaperone. Women workers are critical to humanitarian operations in Afghanistan, and the ban has negative consequences.

Impact on Children

Children in Afghanistan are at significant risk of violence, neglect, abuse, exploitation, starvation, and worsening malnutrition. Situations like child marriage, child labour, family separation, and mass displacements are all likely to worsen.

Impact on Healthcare

The healthcare system in Afghanistan is collapsing. The country is facing a crippling health crisis, with the cost of treatment and medicine far out of reach for many Afghans.

Impact on Food Security

Afghanistan is facing a hunger crisis, with more than 15 million people facing acute food insecurity. Malnutrition is a growing concern, with a projected 15.3 million children in need of life-saving aid.

Impact on Water Security

Access to clean water remains paramount to the health and safety of children. Communities are unable to get enough water for livestock and agriculture, as well as for drinking and hygiene.

Impact on Housing

The war in Afghanistan has resulted in millions of Afghans being driven out of their homes or their country. As of March 2023, almost 6 million Afghans have been internally displaced or have become refugees.

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