Austria's Unification: A Country's Formation

The area of modern-day Austria has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic period. Around 400 BC, it was inhabited by the Celts and then annexed by the Romans in the late 1st century BC. Christianisation in the region began in the 4th and 5th centuries, during the late Roman period, followed by the arrival of numerous Germanic tribes during the Migration Period.

Austria, as a unified state, emerged from the remnants of the Eastern and Hungarian March at the end of the first millennium, first as a frontier march of the Holy Roman Empire. It then developed into a Duchy in 1156, and was made an Archduchy in 1453.

Being the heartland of the Habsburg monarchy since the late 13th century, Austria was a major imperial power in Central Europe for centuries and from the 16th century, Vienna was also serving as the Holy Roman Empire's administrative capital. Before the dissolution of the empire two years later, in 1804, Austria established its own empire, which became a great power and one of the largest states in Europe. The empire's defeat in wars and the loss of territories in the 1860s paved the way for the establishment of Austria-Hungary in 1867.

After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph declared war on Serbia, which ultimately escalated into World War I. The empire's defeat and subsequent collapse led to the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria in 1918 and the First Austrian Republic in 1919. During the interwar period, anti-parliamentarian sentiments culminated in the formation of an Austrofascist dictatorship under Engelbert Dollfuss in 1934. A year before the outbreak of World War II, Austria was annexed into Nazi Germany by Adolf Hitler, and it became a sub-national division. After its liberation in 1945 and a decade of Allied occupation, the country regained its sovereignty and declared its perpetual neutrality in 1955.

The Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Noricum

The Kingdom of Noricum was a federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. It was founded around 400 BC and had its capital at the royal residence at Virunum on the Magdalensberg. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire.

Around 800 BC, the region was inhabited by the people of the Hallstatt culture. Around 450 BC, they merged with the people of other areas in the south-western regions of Germany and eastern France.

The country was mountainous and rich in iron and salt. It supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, Moesia, and northern Italy. The famous Noric steel was largely used in the making of Roman weapons. Gold and salt were found in considerable quantities. The plant called saliunca (the wild nard, a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a perfume according to Pliny the Elder.

The inhabitants developed a culture rich in art, salt mining, cattle breeding, and agriculture. When part of the area became a Roman province, the Romans introduced water management and the already important trade relations between the people north and south of the Alps increased.

The Noric language is only attested in fragmentary inscriptions, one from Ptuj and two from Grafenstein, neither of which provide enough information about the nature of the language.

The kingdom of Noricum was a major provider of weaponry for the Roman army from the mid-Republic onwards. Roman swords were made of the best-quality steel then available from this region, the chalybs Noricus. The strength of steel is determined by its composition and heat treatment. The wrought iron produced in the Greco-Roman world was too soft for tools and weapons. Ore from Noricum, by contrast, could yield a superior product. The ore needed to be rich in manganese (an element that remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), and contain little or no phosphorus, which weakens steel. The ore mined in Carinthia (S. Noricum) fulfilled both criteria particularly well. The Noricum discovered their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and built a major steel industry.

At Magdalensberg, a major production and trading centre, specialised blacksmiths crafted metal products and weapons. The finished arms were exported to Aquileia, a Roman colony founded in 180 BC.

From 200 BC, the Noricum tribes gradually united into a kingdom, known as the Regnum Noricum, with its capital at a place called Noreia. Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing high-quality weapons and tools in exchange for military protection. This was demonstrated in 113 BC, when Teutones invaded Noricum. In response, the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo led an army over the Alps to attack the tribes at Noreia.

Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time previously, the Noricans had enjoyed independence under princes of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria, they were defeated by Publius Silius Nerva, proconsul of Illyricum. Thereafter, Noricum became a Roman province. It was not until the reign of Antoninus Pius that the Second Legion, Pia (later renamed Italica) was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.

Under Diocletian (245–313), Noricum was divided into Noricum ripense ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the Danube), and Noricum mediterraneum ("landlocked Noricum", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps. Each division was under a praeses, and both belonged to the diocese of Illyricum in the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. It was in this time (304 AD) that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as Saint Florian.

The Roman colonies and chief towns were Virunum (near Maria Saal to the north of Klagenfurt), Teurnia (near Spittal an der Drau), Flavia Solva (near Leibnitz), Celeia (Celje) in today's Slovenia, Juvavum (Salzburg), Ovilava (Wels), Lauriacum (Lorch at the mouth of the Enns, the ancient Anisus).

Knowledge of Roman Noricum has been decisively expanded by the work of Richard Knabl, an Austrian epigrapher of the 19th century.

The transition from Roman to barbarian rule in Noricum is well documented in Eugippius' Life of Saint Severinus, providing material for analogies for this process in other regions where primary sources from the period are lacking.

In 1919, Heinrich Lammasch, the last prime minister of Imperial Austria, proposed to give the young republic the name of Norische Republik or Noric Republic, because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state, which—at the time—did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy, but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.

The Bavarians and the Frankish Empire

The Bavarians, a Germanic people, occupied the lands of Austria in the 6th century. This lasted until the 9th century, when the Frankish Empire, established by the Germanic Franks, took over.

In 976, Leopold of Babenberg became margrave of the Ostmark (Eastern March), a territory in the Danube valley established by Charlemagne. The Ostmark was a bulwark against the Avars, and was under the control of the Carolingian East Frankish Empire. In 996, the Ostmark was first referred to as "Ostarrichi", a forerunner of the modern German word "Österreich" (Austria).

In 1156, Austria was elevated to the status of a duchy, and was granted important privileges. In 1246, the last male Babenberg died, and the dynasty's power was extinguished.

The Duchy of Bavaria and the independent Duchy of Austria

The Duchy of Bavaria was a frontier region in the southeastern part of the Merovingian kingdom from the sixth through the eighth century. It was settled by Bavarian tribes and ruled by dukes (duces) under Frankish overlordship. A new duchy was created from this area during the decline of the Carolingian Empire in the late ninth century. It became one of the stem duchies of the East Frankish realm, which evolved as the Kingdom of Germany and the Holy Roman Empire.

During internal struggles in the Ottonian dynasty, the Bavarian territory was considerably diminished by the separation of the newly established Duchy of Carinthia in 976. In 1156, the Marcha Orientalis under the Babenbergs was elevated to a duchy in its own right by the Privilegium Minus. It was Henry the Lion who founded Munich.

The Duchy of Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976. The word "Austria" is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. At the time, the Danube basin of Austria (Upper and Lower Austria) was the easternmost extent of Bavaria.

The Duchy of Austria, still under the Babenbergs, was elevated to the status of a duchy in 1156. In 1453, it was confirmed as an official archduchy of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Austrian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire

The Austrian Empire was formed in 1804, two years before the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. However, the origins of the Austrian Empire can be traced back to the Duchy of Austria, which was established in 1156. The Duchy of Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire, and the rulers of the Duchy of Austria were also the Holy Roman Emperors from 1438 until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

The Duchy of Austria was established in 1156 when the Privilegium Minus elevated the Margraviate of Austria to the status of a duchy. The Margraviate of Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976. The Margraviate of Austria was ruled by the Babenberg family, who were granted the territory by the Holy Roman Emperor. The Babenberg family ruled the Duchy of Austria until the death of Frederick II in 1246, after which the House of Habsburg took control of the Duchy of Austria. The House of Habsburg would rule the Duchy of Austria and the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.

The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in Central Europe that existed from 962 until 1806. The Holy Roman Empire was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor, who was elected by the princes of the empire. The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the protector of Christianity in Western Europe. The Holy Roman Empire was not a unified state in the modern sense, but rather a union of territories ruled by various princes. The Holy Roman Empire was characterised by a fragmented political structure and an elected monarch.

The Duchy of Austria was a part of the Holy Roman Empire from its establishment in 1156 until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. The rulers of the Duchy of Austria were also frequently elected as the Holy Roman Emperor. The Duchy of Austria was elevated to the status of an archduchy in 1453, and it became the heartland of the Habsburg monarchy. The Duchy of Austria was the largest and most powerful state within the Holy Roman Empire, and it played a central role in the politics of the empire. The Duchy of Austria was frequently used as a base of power by the Holy Roman Emperors, and it was the site of the imperial capital, Vienna.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire

The Holy Roman Empire was ruled by the Habsburgs from 1273 to 1918. The Habsburgs were a dynasty that ruled over a kingdom centred on Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. They acquired additional territories through strategic alliances ratified by marriages, including Burgundy, the Netherlands, Spain, and its empire in the Americas.

The Austrian Empire was formed in 1804 by Napoleon Bonaparte, who had crowned himself Emperor of the First French Empire the previous year. The Austrian Empire was ruled by the Habsburgs until the end of the First World War.

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