Lombardy And Venetia: Italy Or Austria?

The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1866. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in recognition of the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice. The kingdom was ruled by the Austrian Emperor, who appointed viceroys to represent him in Milan and Venice. The local administration was Italian in language and staff, but the Austrian authorities had to contend with the Italian unification movement. In 1848, there was a popular revolution in Milan and Venice, and the Austrians were temporarily expelled from the region. After defeating the Sardinian troops at the Battle of Custoza, the Austrians restored their rule in 1849. However, after the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, Lombardy was ceded to France and then immediately passed to the Kingdom of Sardinia. Finally, in 1866, the remaining territory of Venetia was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy, bringing an end to Austrian rule in the region.

The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia

The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, also known as the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1866. It was formed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which recognised the Austrian House of Habsburg-Lorraine's rights to the former Duchy of Milan and the former Republic of Venice. The kingdom was ruled by the Habsburg Emperor of Austria, who was represented by viceroys appointed by the Imperial Court in Vienna and residing in Milan and Venice. The kingdom was divided into two independent governments, or 'crown lands', in Lombardy and Venetia, each further subdivided into several provinces.

The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was first ruled by Emperor Francis I from its formation in 1815 until his death in 1835. His son, Ferdinand I, ruled from 1835 until 1848. During his reign, there was a popular revolution in 1848, known as the "Five Days of Milan", which forced the Austrians to flee from Milan. The city then became the capital of the Lombardy Provisional Government. Venice also rose up against the Austrians, forming the Venice Provisional Government. However, Austrian forces under Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky defeated the Sardinian troops at the Battle of Custoza and entered Milan and Venice, restoring Austrian rule.

Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria ruled the kingdom for the rest of its existence. The office of viceroy was abolished and replaced by a governor-general, initially assumed by Field Marshal Radetzky. After the Second Italian War of Independence and the defeat at the Battle of Solferino in 1859, Austria was forced to cede Lombardy to France, which immediately passed it to the Kingdom of Sardinia. The capital was then relocated to Venice. Finally, in 1866, the remaining territory of Venetia and Mantua fell to the Kingdom of Italy after the Third Italian War of Independence. The territory was formally transferred from Austria to France and then handed over to Italy in October 1866, marking the end of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia.

The Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy

Napoleon's dominance over Italian states was an extension of his control over Italy, which began in 1796 when the French Army of Italy, under his leadership, invaded Italy. Within two weeks, Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia was forced to sign an armistice, and Napoleon entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. In 1797, Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, by which the Republic of Venice was annexed to the Austrian state, and Austria recognised the existence of the Cisalpine Republic and the annexation of Piedmont by France. By 1799, Napoleon had conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution.

The Kingdom of Italy was a dependency of the French Empire, and its government was assumed by Napoleon, with his stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais, as viceroy. The kingdom's territory shifted several times as it served as a theatre in Napoleon's operations against Austria during the wars of the various coalitions. The kingdom provided Napoleon with around 200,000 soldiers during its existence from 1805 to 1814.

The administrative system of the kingdom was organised into 14 departments, following the French model, with each department led by a prefect who was the state's representative. The local legislative body was the General Council, composed of representatives from the communes. The departments were further divided into districts, equivalent to the French arrondissements, with each district led by a vice-prefect. The kingdom also introduced a new national currency, the Italian lira, which was of the same size, weight, and metal as the French franc.

In terms of legal reforms, the Kingdom of Italy adopted a series of constitutional statutes that altered the previous republican constitution. The first statute declared Napoleon as king and established that his sons would succeed him. The third statute, which was the most important, proclaimed Napoleon as the head of state with full powers of government. The Consulta, Legislative Council, and Speakers were merged into a Council of State, whose opinions were optional and not binding for the king. The kingdom also introduced the Napoleonic Code, which provided a modern jurisprudence that was responsive to the rights of individual citizens.

The kingdom's existence ended with Napoleon's defeat and fall. After Napoleon abdicated the thrones of France and Italy in 1814, Eugène de Beauharnais attempted to be crowned king but was exiled to Bavaria by the Austrians, who occupied Milan. The remains of the kingdom were eventually annexed by the Austrian Empire as the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.

The Italian Unification (Risorgimento) movement

The Italian Unification movement, also known as the Risorgimento, was a 19th-century political and social movement that aimed to unite the various states of the Italian peninsula and its outlying islands into a single Kingdom of Italy. The movement was driven by a desire for cultural unity and national consciousness among the Italian people, and it led to a series of political events that freed the Italian states from foreign domination.

The Risorgimento can be traced back to the reforms introduced by the French during their domination of Italy from 1796 to 1815. During this period, several Italian states were consolidated, and the Italian middle class grew in numbers and influence. However, after Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the Italian states returned to their former rulers, and under Austrian domination, these states adopted a conservative character.

The main opposition to Austrian rule came from secret societies such as the Carbonari, which emerged in the 1820s and 1830s. The first avowedly republican and national group was Young Italy, founded by Giuseppe Mazzini in 1831. This society represented the democratic aspect of the Risorgimento and sought to educate the Italian people about their nationhood and encourage them to rise against the existing reactionary regimes.

The Revolutions of 1848 played a crucial role in the unification process. Revolts broke out in Sicily, Naples, Tuscany, Lombardy, and Venice, leading to the expulsion of the Austrian garrison from Milan after five days of street fighting. King Charles Albert of Piedmont, fearing a republican victory in neighbouring Lombardy, decided to intervene and sent his army into Lombardy. However, due to his hesitations and indecisive military campaigns, he missed the opportunity to eliminate Radetzky's retreating Austrian army.

Despite setbacks and divisions among the republicans, the unification movement gained momentum. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War, enhancing its diplomatic legitimacy. Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, provided critical leadership and pursued modernising reforms in areas such as agriculture, banking, railways, and free trade. He advocated for Italian independence and a league of Italian princes, and in 1852, he became prime minister.

In 1859, the Second Italian War of Independence began when Sardinia found an ally in Napoleon III of France. This war resulted in Sardinia annexing Lombardy from Austria. The Sardinian army then occupied and annexed the United Provinces of Central Italy, consisting of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma, the Duchy of Modena, and the Papal Legations. However, Sardinia also had to cede Savoy and Nice to France as part of these negotiations.

The Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, played a pivotal role in the unification process. In 1860, Garibaldi and a cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers sailed from Genoa and landed in Sicily, where they joined forces with scattered bands of rebels. Within three days, their numbers swelled to 4,000, and Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After a series of successful battles, Garibaldi advanced on Palermo, and the Neapolitan government's efforts to regain control failed.

The fall of Palermo demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government, and Garibaldi became a national hero. He continued his march northward, and by the end of August, he entered Naples. However, Garibaldi's irregular bands were unable to drive away the king or take the fortresses of Capua and Gaeta without the help of the Royal Sardinian Army. Eventually, Garibaldi accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel, and together, they worked towards the unification of Italy.

In 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first Italian Parliament in Turin, and on March 17, they proclaimed him King of Italy. Rome was declared the capital, although it was not yet part of the kingdom. The unification movement continued, and in 1866, during the Third Italian War of Independence, Italy allied with Prussia and captured Venetia from Austrian rule. Finally, in 1870, after the collapse of the Second French Empire, Italian troops entered Rome, and Rome and Latium were annexed, marking the final unification of Italy and the end of the Risorgimento.

The Congress of Vienna

The Congress's objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, while also serving as shepherds for the smaller powers.

The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia experienced widespread anti-Austrian uprisings in March 1848, which led to the creation of a Milanese provisional government and the proclamation of a Venetian republic. However, the Austrians regained control of Milan and Venice in 1849, and the revolutionary period in Italy came to an end.

The Austrian Empire

The Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was formed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, combining the territories of the former Duchy of Milan and the Republic of Venice into a single kingdom ruled by the Habsburg Emperor of Austria. This kingdom was a constituent land of the Austrian Empire, but it maintained some autonomy with its own local administration and governance structures. However, the creation of this kingdom was met with resistance from those who sought a unified Italy, as it placed large parts of what they considered Italian territory under Austrian rule.

Lombardy and Venetia were economically and culturally significant regions within the Austrian Empire. They were home to important cities such as Milan and Venice, and the loss of these territories in 1859 and 1866 respectively dealt a severe economic blow to the empire. The regions also had symbolic value, with the ancient symbolism of the Lombard kingdom being utilised to try to foster regional patriotism and counteract the rising tide of Italian nationalism.

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