Anti-Americanism In Bolivia: Exploring The Complex Relationship

Bolivia's anti-Americanism has been a significant factor in shaping its diplomatic relations and political landscape, especially with the election of Evo Morales as president in 2006. Morales, a left-wing indigenous leader, has been a vocal critic of U.S. policies, promoting an anti-colonialism agenda and improving relations with other anti-U.S. governments in the region. Bolivia's foreign policy priorities under Morales also included strengthening political forums independent of U.S. influence, such as the Union of South American Nations and the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. Additionally, Bolivia's stance on human rights in international venues like the UN Human Rights Council and the Inter-American System has often been at odds with U.S. positions, further straining bilateral ties.

Bolivia's stance on human rights

Bolivia is a constitutional, multiparty republic with an elected president and a bicameral legislature. The country has a National Police force that is responsible for law enforcement and the maintenance of order within the country, with support from the Armed Forces.

Human Rights Concerns in Bolivia:

Bolivia has faced criticism from human rights organizations and international bodies for several issues. These concerns include impunity for violent crime and human rights violations, threats to judicial independence, violence against women and girls, child labor, torture, and harsh prison conditions.

Impunity for Violent Crime and Human Rights Violations:

Bolivia has a history of struggling with impunity for violent crimes and human rights abuses committed during authoritarian regimes from 1964 to 1982. While the government established a truth commission in 2017 to investigate these crimes, prosecutions of officials responsible have been limited. This impunity has contributed to a culture of mob attacks or lynchings of alleged criminals.

Threats to Judicial Independence:

Reforms to the Bolivian justice system have raised concerns about the independence of the judiciary. The current administration's efforts to oversee the implementation of recommendations from a "National Justice Summit" have granted broad powers to a commission, including controlling the appointment of new judges. This commission is largely composed of supporters of the current administration, raising questions about its impartiality.

Violence Against Women and Girls:

Despite laws and measures to prevent and prosecute violence against women, such as the creation of the crime of "femicide," women and girls in Bolivia remain at high risk. Gender-based violence persists, and there is a lack of access to sexual and reproductive health services, including contraceptives.

Child Labor:

Bolivia has been criticized for the existence of the worst forms of child labor. The country has laws prohibiting child labor and establishing age limits for employment, but enforcement of these laws remains a challenge.

Torture and Prison Conditions:

There have been credible reports of torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment by government officials. Prisons in Bolivia are overcrowded and lack adequate medical services, resulting in harsh and life-threatening conditions. In addition, corruption and the politicization of the judicial system have contributed to impunity for abuses.

Bolivia's Efforts to Address Human Rights Issues:

While Bolivia has faced criticism for its human rights record, the country has also made efforts to address some of these issues. The government has taken steps to prosecute members of the security services and officials who commit abuses or corrupt acts. Additionally, Bolivia has allowed independent monitoring of prisons by organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and local NGOs.

US-Bolivia Relations and Human Rights:

US-Bolivia relations have been strained at times due to differences in policies and approaches towards human rights and democracy. The US government has expressed concern over anti-democratic actions and the politicization of the legal system in Bolivia. However, it maintains a commitment to working with the Bolivian people to advance human rights, entrepreneurship, and cultural and educational initiatives.

The country's anti-American sentiment

Bolivia has a long and complex history with the United States, and while the two countries have maintained diplomatic relations, anti-American sentiment has been a recurring theme in Bolivia. Here is an overview of the factors contributing to this sentiment and its impact on bilateral relations.

Historical Context

Bolivia gained independence from Spain in the 19th century, and the United States recognized it as a sovereign state in 1848, establishing diplomatic relations a year later. However, the relationship has been fraught with tensions, especially in more recent decades.

Coca and Drug Policy

One of the significant sources of friction between the two countries is the issue of coca production and drug policy. Bolivia is the world's third-largest producer of cocaine, and the United States has been critical of Bolivia's efforts to combat the illicit drug trade. In 2008, US President George W. Bush placed Bolivia on a counter-narcotics blacklist, asserting that the country had failed to meet its commitments to combat cocaine production and trafficking. This action strained relations, with then-Bolivian President Evo Morales accusing the US of thwarting his policies and supporting opposition movements.

Political Differences and Alleged Interference

Bolivia has often been at odds with the United States politically, with Bolivian leaders such as Evo Morales publicly criticizing US policies. Morales, who served as president from 2006 to 2019, had a socialist platform that included nationalizing key industries and legalizing the use of coca, a traditional medicine for the Aymara people of Bolivia. Morales also accused the US of aiding coup attempts in Latin American countries, including Bolivia, and interfering in Bolivia's foreign relations, particularly regarding potential talks with Iran.

Expulsion of US Agencies and Officials

The Bolivian government's decisions to expel US agencies and officials have further strained relations. In 2008, President Morales expelled the US ambassador, Philip S. Goldberg, declaring him "persona non grata." Additionally, Bolivia expelled the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) from the country, ending a 35-year history of DEA activity in Bolivia. The Bolivian government also expelled the US Agency for International Development (USAID) in 2013, accusing it of meddling in the country's internal affairs and supporting opposition groups.

Impact on Bilateral Relations

The anti-American sentiment in Bolivia has had a tangible impact on bilateral relations. Despite being important trade partners, with about $1 billion in bilateral goods trade in 2022, there is no free trade agreement between the two countries. The United States has expressed concern about Bolivia's anti-democratic actions and the politicization of its legal system. However, the US continues to work with Bolivia to advance human rights, entrepreneurship, and cultural and educational initiatives.

Public Opinion

Public opinion polls, such as the Latinobarómetro, have shown varying levels of anti-American sentiment among Bolivians. In 2004, the survey revealed that in Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, and Uruguay, those with a positive opinion of the United States were in the minority. In Bolivia specifically, a 2012 poll showed that 34% of Bolivians approved of "the job performance of the leadership of the U.S.," with 26% disapproving and 40% uncertain. A separate global opinion poll in 2013 indicated that 55% of Bolivians viewed the US favorably, while 29% expressed an unfavorable view.

The Bolivian government's relationship with the US

The relationship between Bolivia and the US has been strained in recent years, particularly during the presidency of Evo Morales. Morales, a left-wing indigenous leader and coca-growers' unionist, was democratically elected in 2006 and served until 2019. During his time in office, Morales pursued an "anti-colonialism" agenda that directly opposed US policies and improved relations with other visibly anti-US governments in the region, such as Venezuela, Cuba, Ecuador, and Argentina.

Morales was publicly critical of US policies and accused the US of aiding coup attempts in Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador, as well as a successful coup in Honduras. He also denounced US attempts to define Bolivia's foreign relations, particularly regarding possible talks with Iran. In addition, Morales accused the US of promoting torture and criticised its opposition to the International Criminal Court.

In 2013, relations between the two countries deteriorated further when Bolivian President Evo Morales's plane was forced to land in Vienna, Austria, due to unsubstantiated rumours that US whistleblower Edward Snowden was on board. Morales accused the US of pressuring European countries to prevent his passage home.

During Morales' presidency, there were also disputes over coca production and the Drug War. In 2008, US President George W. Bush placed Bolivia on a counter-narcotics blacklist, stating that Bolivia had "failed demonstrably" to combat the production and trafficking of illicit drugs, mainly cocaine. Morales, on the other hand, accused the CIA of assisting the previous regime in Bolivia and claimed that the US military had supported illegal arms shipments to rebels.

Despite these tensions, the US and Bolivia have had some positive interactions. The US provided humanitarian assistance to Bolivia in 2021, supporting the country's response to natural disasters and the influx of Venezuelan refugees. Additionally, the US and Bolivia have a bilateral economic relationship, with the US being Bolivia's fifth-largest import market and eleventh export market.

In recent years, there have been efforts to improve relations between the two countries. After Morales' resignation in 2019, the interim government of Jeanine Áñez worked to enhance ties with the US, naming a temporary ambassador for the first time in over a decade. However, relations worsened again after the victory of the socialist candidate Luis Arce in the 2020 general election.

Evo Morales's influence

Evo Morales was the first president of Bolivia to come from its indigenous population. Morales, a socialist, served as the 65th president of Bolivia from 2006 to 2019. His administration worked towards the implementation of left-wing policies, focusing on the legal protections and socioeconomic conditions of Bolivia's previously marginalized indigenous population and combating the political influence of the United States and resource-extracting multinational corporations.

Morales' supporters laud him as a champion of indigenous rights, anti-imperialism, and environmentalism. They credit him with overseeing significant economic growth and poverty reduction, as well as increased investment in schools, hospitals, and infrastructure. Morales' government did not initiate fundamental changes to Bolivia's economic structure, and their National Development Plan for 2006-2010 largely adhered to the country's previous liberal economic model. Bolivia's economy was based on the extraction of natural resources, with the nation having South America's second-largest reserves of natural gas.

Morales' influence on Bolivia's anti-American sentiment is evident in his policies and public statements. He was publicly critical of US policies and sought to reduce US influence in the country by building relationships with leftist governments in Latin America, especially Hugo Chávez's Venezuela and Fidel Castro's Cuba. Morales signed Bolivia into the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas and opposed the autonomist demands of Bolivia's eastern provinces.

Morales' administration expelled the US ambassador, US law enforcement, and development cooperation agencies, straining the bilateral relationship between the United States and Bolivia. In July 2013, relations further deteriorated when Bolivian President Evo Morales' plane was forced to land in Austria due to unsubstantiated rumors that US whistleblower Edward Snowden was on board. Morales accused the United States of pressuring European countries to prevent his passage home.

In addition, Morales accused the US of aiding coup attempts in Latin America and defining Bolivia's foreign relations, particularly regarding possible talks with Iran. He also criticized the US for promoting torture and opposing the International Criminal Court.

Morales' stance on coca production and the War on Drugs further contributed to tensions with the US. He campaigned against joint US-Bolivian attempts to eradicate coca as part of the War on Drugs, denouncing them as an imperialist violation of indigenous Andean culture. Morales' administration ensured the legality of coca growing and introduced measures to regulate its production and trade. However, critics argue that his defense of coca contributed to illegal cocaine production.

Overall, Evo Morales' influence on Bolivia's anti-American sentiment was significant. His policies and public statements criticized US interventionism and promoted Bolivia's sovereignty and the rights of its indigenous population.

Bolivia's economic ties with the US

Bolivia and the United States have had a complex and often strained relationship, with diplomatic ties established in 1848. In recent years, the two countries have experienced periods of tension and cooperation, particularly in the areas of economic and trade relations.

The United States is a significant trade partner for Bolivia, with bilateral goods trade valued at approximately $1 billion in 2022. The US exports to Bolivia include refined petroleum, planes, helicopters, computers, mineral oils/fuels, plastic materials, food preparations, and heavy machinery. In 2022, the exports from the US to Bolivia were valued at $544 million. On the other hand, Bolivia's exports to the US include raw tin, coconuts, Brazil nuts, buckwheat, and refined petroleum. In 2022, Bolivia's exports to the US were valued at $389 million.

The economic ties between the two countries have been influenced by political developments and shifts in diplomatic relations. The election of Evo Morales as Bolivia's president in 2006 caused tensions with the US due to Morales' policies on coca leaf production and his criticism of US intervention in Latin America. Morales accused the US of aiding coup attempts in Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador, and criticised US policies on torture and the International Criminal Court. In 2013, relations deteriorated further when European countries, allegedly pressured by the US, denied Bolivian President Evo Morales' plane passage over their airspace due to rumours that US whistleblower Edward Snowden was on board.

Despite these tensions, there have been periods of improved economic relations. After Evo Morales' resignation in 2019, the interim government of Jeanine Áñez made efforts to improve ties with the US, appointing a temporary ambassador for the first time in over a decade. However, relations worsened again after the victory of socialist candidate Luis Arce in the 2020 general election.

The US provides development assistance to Bolivia through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which has been active in the country since the 1960s. USAID's programs focus on areas such as democratic institutions, economic development, health, and environmental sustainability. In Fiscal Year 2021, the US provided $440,000 to support Bolivia's response to natural disasters and $495,000 in humanitarian assistance for Venezuelan refugees and their host communities.

In summary, the economic ties between Bolivia and the US are complex and influenced by political and diplomatic factors. While the two countries have a significant trade relationship, there have been periods of tension and cooperation, with the US providing development assistance through USAID and Bolivia navigating challenges such as coca leaf production and political instability.

Frequently asked questions