The Existence Of Belarus: A Country In Question

Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. Throughout history, the lands that make up modern-day Belarus have been controlled by various states, including Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. Belarus has had a tumultuous journey towards independence, marked by foreign occupations, revolutions, and shifting political ideologies. Today, Belarus is an independent nation, but its existence and recognition on the world stage have been shaped by complex historical forces and power dynamics.

Belarus's independence from the Soviet Union

Belarus was occupied by the Russian Empire from the end of the 18th century until the Russian Revolution in 1917. During this time, Belarus briefly declared a National Republic on March 25, 1918, but was soon forcibly absorbed into the Soviet Union by the Bolsheviks.

Following the Russian Revolution, different states arose and competed for legitimacy amid the Russian Civil War, ultimately resulting in the consolidation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. During World War II, Belarus was occupied by Nazi Germany and then retaken by Stalin's Russia in 1944.

On July 27, 1990, Belarus declared its sovereignty from the Soviet Union, and on August 25, 1991, it declared its independence, which was recognized by the United States on December 25, 1991. Belarus has maintained close ties with Russia since its independence, signing the Union State Foundation Treaty in 1999, which aimed to create a politically integrated confederation. However, the precise nature of this partnership remains unclear.

The process of Belarus's independence from the Soviet Union was a significant event in the country's history, and some individuals, such as historian Anatol Sidarevich, celebrated and advocated for it. However, the country has been led by the authoritarian President Alexander Lukashenko since 1994, and relations with the United States have remained strained due to concerns over human rights and electoral practices.

The country's history of foreign rule

Belarus has a long history of foreign rule, dating back to the Middle Ages when its lands became part of Kievan Rus' and were divided between various regional powers. In the 13th century, following invasions from Mongol forces, these lands were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which later merged with Poland to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 16th century.

In the 18th century, after the partitions of Poland, Belarusian territories fell under the rule of the Russian Empire. This marked the beginning of a long period of Russian influence in the region, which lasted until the end of World War I. During this time, the Belarusian people experienced repression and Russification policies, which aimed to erase their national culture and language.

After the Russian Revolution in 1917 and the ensuing civil war, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic emerged and became a founding member of the Soviet Union in 1922. This period was marked by significant political and social transformations, with the Soviet Union exerting tight control over Belarus. During World War II, Belarus suffered devastating occupation first by Nazi Germany and then by the Soviet Union once again.

Following the war, Belarus became a founding member of the United Nations and remained a constituent republic of the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. During this time, the country experienced some cultural revival, but it was short-lived as the Soviet authorities cracked down on dissent and executed much of the Belarusian national intelligentsia.

In 1990, Belarus declared its state sovereignty, and on August 25, 1991, it officially gained independence from the Soviet Union. Since then, Belarus has navigated its foreign relations as a newly independent state, joining organisations such as the Commonwealth of Independent States and developing closer ties with Russia. However, relations with Western countries, including the European Union and the United States, have been strained due to accusations of undemocratic practices and human rights abuses.

The formation of a Belarusian national identity

• Historical Roots and Foreign Rule: Belarus's national identity has been influenced by its long history of foreign rule, including periods under the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire, and the Soviet Union. Each of these rulers left their mark on the country's culture, language, and religious practices.
• Language and Literature: The Belarusian language has played a crucial role in shaping national identity. Efforts to promote and standardise the language began in the 19th century with figures like Jan Czeczot and Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich. Literature also played a significant role, with authors such as Francišak Bahuševič and Konstanty Kalinowski advocating for Belarusian independence and social reform.
• Religion: Belarus's religious landscape has been diverse, with periods of Orthodox dominance, Catholicism, and the influence of the Uniate Church. While attempts have been made to unite the country under a single religion, these efforts have largely failed, and religious divisions have often overlapped with political and cultural divides.
• World War II and Collaboration: During World War II, some Belarusian nationalists collaborated with Nazi Germany, while others resisted and fought alongside the Allies. This period remains controversial, with the current government using accusations of collaboration to discredit the opposition.
• Soviet Era and Independence: The Soviet era saw the suppression of national identity, with policies of Russification and the persecution of intellectuals. However, the push for independence re-emerged in the late 1980s, leading to Belarus's declaration of sovereignty in 1990 and independence in 1991.
• Post-Independence Politics: Since independence, Belarusian nationalism has been divided between pro-Western and pro-Russian factions. The pro-Western group has sought closer ties with Europe and emphasised resistance during World War II, while the pro-Russian group, including President Alexander Lukashenko, has promoted unification with Russia and associated the opposition with collaboration during the war.

The country's relationship with Russia

Belarus and Russia have a long and complex history, sharing a land border and constituting a supranational Union State. Belarus was occupied by the Russian Empire from the end of the 18th century until it briefly declared a National Republic in 1918, before being forcibly absorbed by the Bolsheviks into the Soviet Union.

After World War II, Belarus was retaken by Stalin's Russia and remained under Soviet control until declaring its sovereignty in 1990 and independence in 1991. Russia, facing a broken economy and attempting to build ties with the West, tried to maintain control over the post-Soviet space by creating the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Belarus, like other CIS republics, began to drift away from Russia. However, as NATO expanded eastward, Russia found itself in a difficult situation, facing the breakup of the large geopolitical bloc it had once controlled. This led to the increasing importance of good relations with Belarus.

In the mid-1990s, Belarus seemed like an ideal candidate for integration with Russia, and the two countries signed several bilateral treaties. The integration process was launched in 1996, and the Union of Belarus and Russia was founded a year later. The culmination of this process was the establishment of a Union State between the two nations in 1999, with the stated aim of deepening their relationship through economic and defence policy integration. Despite setbacks and political differences, the military-integration processes between the two states continued.

In recent years, the relationship between Belarus and Russia has been strained at times. In 2020, Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko accused Russia of trying to incorporate Belarus into Russia, leading to Russia cutting economic subsidies. However, the two countries have also coordinated their actions, such as in 2022 when Russia was permitted to stage part of its invasion of Ukraine from Belarusian territory. Lukashenko has also stated that Belarusian troops could take part in the invasion if needed, and that Russia can bring its nuclear weapons onto Belarusian soil.

The country's relationship with the US

Belarus and the United States established diplomatic relations on 28 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The US recognised the independence of the Republic of Belarus on 25 December 1991.

The US supports a sovereign, independent Belarus that respects the rights and voices of its people. However, the relationship between the two countries has been strained due to accusations of human rights abuses by the US, and counter-accusations of interference in internal affairs by Belarus.

Early Relations

The US Embassy in Minsk was opened on 31 January 1992, with John Ford as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim. The Embassy of Belarus in Washington, DC, was opened in 1992, with the Belarusian Embassy in Washington following in 1993.

In 1994, US President Bill Clinton visited Minsk as a "thank you" for Belarus agreeing to transfer its Soviet nuclear stockpile to Russia. In the same year, Alexander Lukashenko came to power in an election that was considered free and fair. However, since then, Lukashenko has been accused of consolidating authoritarian control through extensive repression and corrupt practices.

Strained Relations

In 1996, Lukashenko temporarily expelled the US and EU ambassadors in response to criticism of a referendum that dissolved parliament and expanded the presidency. In 2006, the US imposed travel restrictions and targeted financial sanctions on nine Belarusian state-owned entities and 16 individuals, including Lukashenko, following an election that was neither free nor fair.

In 2008, the US tightened sanctions due to worsening human rights abuses, prompting Belarus to expel the US ambassador and 30 out of 35 US diplomats. In 2015, the US provided limited sanctions relief after Lukashenko released Belarus' remaining political prisoners.

In 2019, the two countries announced they would exchange ambassadors, and Julie Fisher, the first US Ambassador to Belarus since 2008, was confirmed in December 2020. However, following the disputed 2020 presidential election, relations deteriorated further, with the US imposing additional sanctions and visa restrictions on actors implicated in the election and the subsequent crackdown on civil society.

Current Relations

In February 2020, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo visited Belarus to offer aid after Russia cut off energy supplies. However, in February 2022, the US suspended its embassy in Belarus due to intelligence suggesting Belarus was preparing to join Russia in invading Ukraine.

Despite the tensions, Belarus has received significant foreign assistance from the US, which amounted to over $1 billion in foreign assistance since 1992, including over $2 million in COVID-related assistance. The US has encouraged Belarus to conclude agreements with the International Monetary Fund and undertake privatisation and business reforms. However, Belarusian authorities have been reluctant to undertake systemic economic reforms to create a market-based economy.

Frequently asked questions