Bahrain's Religious Freedom: A Complex Reality

Bahrain is a Muslim-majority country, with 99% of its citizens identifying as Muslim, and the remaining 1% comprising Christians, Hindus, Baháʼís and Jews. The Constitution of Bahrain states that Islam is the official religion, and that Sharia law is a principal source for legislation. However, it also provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings, in accordance with the customs observed in the country. While the government has placed some limitations on these rights, members of minority religious groups are generally able to practice their faith without interference.

The Constitution of Bahrain and freedom of religion

The Constitution of Bahrain states that Islam is the official religion of the country, and that Sharia (Islamic law) is a principal source for legislation. Article 22 of the Constitution provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings, in accordance with the customs observed in the country. However, the government has placed some limitations on the exercise of this right.

Religious Demography

Among Bahrain's citizens, an estimated 99.8% are Muslim, with the remaining 1% comprising Christians, Hindus, Baháʼís, and Jews. The country's Muslim population is split between the Shi'a and Sunni branches of Islam, with Shi'a Muslims making up approximately 60-70% of the citizen population. Foreigners, mostly from South Asia and other Arab countries, constitute about 54% of the total population, and are a more religiously diverse group.

Legal and Policy Framework

The Constitution of Bahrain provides for freedom of religion, but there are limits to this right. Religious groups must obtain a license from the Ministry of Justice and Islamic Affairs (MOJIA) to operate and may need approval from other ministries depending on their activities. The government allows religion-based political organizations to register as political "societies," permitting them to conduct political activities. The Constitution guarantees the right to express and publish opinions, as long as they do not infringe on the fundamental beliefs of Islamic doctrine. Anti-Islamic publications are prohibited, and the law mandates imprisonment for exposing the state's official religion to offense and criticism.

Restrictions on Religious Freedom

The Bahraini government's policies and practices generally contribute to the free practice of religion in the country. Members of religious minority groups are allowed to practice their faith privately and maintain their own places of worship. The government funds all official religious institutions, including those of both Sunni and Shi'a Muslims. It also permits public religious events, such as the annual commemorative marches by Shi'a Muslims during Ramadan and Muharram.

While the Constitution of Bahrain provides for freedom of religion, there are limitations and restrictions in place, particularly for minority religious groups. The government's recognition of Islam as the official religion and its role in legislation and various policies affect the religious freedom of citizens, especially those from minority groups.

The treatment of Shia Muslims

Shia Muslims make up approximately 55% of Bahraini citizens, but the country is ruled by the Sunni royal family, Al Khalifa. Shia Muslims have long been marginalised and dispossessed by the government, with high-ranking official positions predominantly belonging to Sunnis.

During the 2011 Arab Spring uprising, Shia Muslims protested against the Al Khalifa government, resulting in a violent crackdown and the detention and torture of men, women, and children. Dozens of Shia mosques were also demolished by the government.

Shia Muslims continue to face discrimination in government employment, education, and the justice system. They are banned from residing in certain areas, such as the city of West Riffa, and are excluded from serving in the police and armed forces. Shia prisoners have reported mistreatment and a lack of access to medical care while incarcerated.

The Bahraini government has been criticised by human rights organisations for its treatment of Shia Muslims, with reports of torture, forced disappearances, and the suppression of free speech and assembly. The government has also been accused of attempting to alter the demographic balance by promoting the immigration of Sunni Muslims and granting them citizenship.

While the Bahraini constitution provides for freedom of conscience and the freedom to perform religious rites, in practice, there are limitations on these rights. Shia clerics and community members have been subject to questioning, detention, and arrest, and the content of their sermons is monitored and regulated by the government.

Despite these challenges, Shia Muslims remain a significant and active community in Bahrain, with large-scale gatherings and processions taking place to observe important religious events.

The treatment of non-Muslim groups

In terms of legal protections, the Bahraini Constitution provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings. However, the Constitution also declares Islam as the official religion and states that Sharia (Islamic law) is a principal source for legislation. This creates a tension between the protection of religious freedom and the promotion of Islam as the state religion.

In practice, non-Muslim groups in Bahrain have a degree of freedom to practice their religion and maintain their places of worship. There are several Christian churches, Hindu temples, a Jewish synagogue, and a Sikh temple in the country, and members of these religious groups are generally allowed to practice their faith without interference from the government. However, all religious groups, including non-Muslim ones, must register with the Ministry of Justice, Islamic Affairs, and Endowments (MOJIA) or the Ministry of Labor and Social Development (MOLSD) to operate legally. This registration process can be cumbersome and may involve providing detailed information about the group's activities and leadership.

One area of concern for non-Muslim groups in Bahrain is education. Islamic studies are mandatory for Muslim students in public schools, and there is no secular or humanist alternative offered. Additionally, the public school curriculum includes only Sunni (Maliki) religious education, excluding Shia (Jaafari) traditions. This exclusion of Shia Islam in the curriculum contributes to a broader pattern of discrimination against Shia Muslims in Bahrain, who make up the majority of the citizen population.

Societal attitudes towards non-Muslim groups in Bahrain are mixed. On the one hand, there is a degree of tolerance and acceptance, with members of different religious groups generally coexisting peacefully. On the other hand, there is also pressure against converting from Islam, and those who do so may face shunning, abuse, or feel compelled to leave the country. Additionally, there have been reports of anti-Shia and anti-Sunni sentiment on social media, and tensions between the two Muslim sects have had adverse economic effects.

Overall, while Bahrain has made some progress in promoting religious freedom for non-Muslim groups, there are still areas where improvement is needed. The government's policies and practices related to religious freedom are not always consistent, and societal attitudes can be discriminatory or intolerant. As a result, non-Muslim groups in Bahrain may face challenges and restrictions in their ability to freely practice their religion.

The role of the government

The Bahraini government has a complex relationship with religious freedom. While the Constitution of Bahrain states that Islam is the official religion and that Sharia (Islamic law) is a principal source for legislation, it also provides for freedom of conscience, the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings, in accordance with the customs observed in the country. However, the government has placed some limitations on the exercise of these rights.

The government allows religion-based, political non-governmental organizations to register as political "societies" and operate similarly to parties with the legal authority to conduct political activities. Every religious group, including Muslim groups, must obtain a license from the Ministry of Justice and Islamic Affairs (MOJIA) to operate and may also need approval from other ministries, depending on their activities. The government prohibits anti-Islamic writings and mandates imprisonment for "exposing the state's official religion to offense and criticism". The government-run and funded Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs (SCIA) oversees general Islamic religious activities and the publication of Islamic studies school curricula and official religious texts.

The Bahraini government has been accused of sowing sectarian divisions among the country's Muslim majority, particularly between the Shia and Sunni communities, and undermining the broad-based pro-democracy movement. It has been reported that the government has long disenfranchised and dispossessed the Shia Muslim community, which makes up approximately 60-70% of the total citizen population. There have been reports of discrimination against Shia Muslims in recruitment for the country's military and domestic security services, with the Ministry of Defense not recruiting Shia for military service. The government has also been accused of providing preferential treatment to Sunnis for public sector positions, including as teachers and in the managerial ranks of the civil service and military.

In terms of religious practice, the government generally permits the free practice of religion for members of minority religious groups. These groups are allowed to maintain their own places of worship and display the symbols of their religion. The government funds all official religious institutions, including those of both Shia and Sunni Muslims. It also permits public religious events, such as the large annual commemorative marches by Shia Muslims during the Islamic months of Ramadan and Muharram.

However, there have been reports of restrictions on religious freedom, particularly for the Shia community. During the 2011-2012 Arab Spring uprising, the government cracked down on Shia protests, and dozens of Shia mosques were demolished. The government has also been accused of questioning, detaining, and arresting Shia clerics and community members, as well as monitoring and providing guidance for the content of sermons, bringing charges against clerics who speak on unapproved topics, and not airing Shia sermons on the government-run television station.

In terms of legal rights, the Bahraini government has been criticized for its treatment of women, particularly in divorce and child custody cases. While both Shia and Sunni women have the right to initiate a divorce, religious courts may refuse the request. Women's rights to property inheritance and child custody also vary according to Shia or Sunni interpretations of Islamic law. Additionally, the government has been criticized for its anti-LGBTQ+ laws and policies, with consensual same-sex relations being indirectly banned by categorizing them as "immoral" behaviour.

The impact of the Arab Spring

The Arab Spring was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. In Bahrain, the movement began on 14 February 2011, with a "Day of Rage" organised by activists through social media sites like Facebook and Twitter. They were protesting the discrimination against the Shias by the Sunni monarchy and the disrespect for human rights. The activists wanted a new constitution and a democratically elected government.

The police responded to the protests with tear gas and rubber bullets. Within a year of the first day of protesting, 1,600 peaceful protestors were arrested, more than 100 people were convicted, and 35 people died due to police violence. The Bahraini government was the only one to temporarily succeed in suppressing the protests through force. However, this came at a cost: the sense of a unified community was destroyed, and the dozens of protests hurt Bahrain's economy.

The economic impact of the Arab Spring in Bahrain was significant. The chairman of the Bahrain Chamber of Commerce and Industry estimated that Bahrain lost over $2 billion. The GDP and public finance decreased by $391 million and $690 million, respectively. Public expenditure increased by $2.1 billion as the government gave each family $2,660 to improve living standards and compensate for the declining economy. The Bahrain Grand Prix, a Formula One championship race, was cancelled in 2011, resulting in a loss of approximately $220 million in revenue. The country's degree of economic openness decreased as other countries became reluctant to trade and invest in Bahrain.

The Arab Spring created uncertainty for Bahrain's economy, and it will require significant effort from the government to recover. While Bahrain is expected to rebound in the near future, a full recovery may not be possible if the citizens continue their anti-dynasty protests.

The Bahraini government's response to the Arab Spring also had a lasting impact on the country's social fabric. Dozens of Shia mosques were demolished, and the government tore down the Pearl Roundabout monument, which had become a symbol of the protests. The society's sense of community was fractured, and deep sectarian divisions were exacerbated.

In conclusion, the Arab Spring had far-reaching consequences for Bahrain. It led to economic losses, a brutal crackdown on protestors, and a deepening of sectarian divisions. The country has struggled to recover from the impact of the movement, and the future remains uncertain.

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